MARINE BIOLOGICAL LABORATORY.

Received -.r^.h^^ /..0^^^..../..J..I..'l

Accession No. %J i ^
Given by cZ7\r'^r%rJL Aq^
Place,

nOTK-'

*;^*flo book OP pamphlet is to be removed fpom the Iiab-
oPQtopy uuithout the pepmission of the Tpustees.

BULLETI]^

CM.

J

4 ^

|e-c_

>3L ^

OF THE

UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

VOL. I,

VOli

18 8 1

WASHINGTON:
govern:ment printing office.

1882.

3 (r^ ^

ADVERTISEMENT.

United States Commission of Fish and Fisheries,

Washington, D. C.
For the purpose of utilizing and of promptly publishing the large
amount of interesting correspondence of the Fish Commission in refer-
ence to matters pertaining to fish culture and to the apparatus, methods,
and results of the fisheries. Congress, on the 14th day of February, 1881,
by joint resolution (H. Res. 372), authorized the publication annually of
a Bulletin, a portion of the edition to be distributed signature by signa-
ture, and the remainder in bound volumes. The present volume is the
first of this series, and contains many announcements which are be-
lieved to be of great importance in relation to the subject in question.

SPENCER F. BAIRD,

Comm.issioner.

Ill

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Page.
Ariiii«it«^>nci, A. Wilson. A transfer of Leather Carp (Vi/prinnn carp'w) from the govern-
ment ponds at Washington, U. S. A., to Scotland 341

Baiiditten, Ebrn. Recent contributions to pond cultivation .. 385

Bariif s, A. O. (Growth and Spawning of German Carp in Alabama 424

Bean, Tarlcton H. Movements of Young Alewives (?) {Pomolobus, sp.) in Colorado River,

Texas 6ft

Notes on a Shipment, by the United States Fish Commission, of California Salmon

{Oncorhynchus cliouicha) to Tanner's Creek, Indiana, in 1876 204

Account of a Shipment, by the United States Fish Commission, of California Salmon-Fry

{Oneorhynehus chouicha) to Southern Louisiana, with a Xote on Some Collections Made at

Tickfaw 205

Behr, tou. Treatment of F^sh Eggs at Sea 346

Borne, Max von deni. Dry transmission of Fish Eggs 345

Campbell, J. B. Notes on McCloud River, California, and Some of its Fishes 44

Chad^viek, B. P. The Destruction of Young Fish by Unsuitable Fishing In^lements . . . 339

<.'lark, Frank iV. The Self-Picker 62

On the Rearing of Whitetisli in Spring Water, and its Rfdation to their Subsequent Dis-
tribution 381

Collins, Capl. J. W. Gill-Nets in the Cod-fishery: A Description of the Norweg'an Cod-
Nets, with Direclious foi their Use. and a History of their Introduction into tlie United

States 1

An In(piiry as to the Capture of Young Codfish in Che.iapeake Bay 401

First Arrival of Mackerel in N e w York in the Spring of 1882 402

Creighton, B. J. Fish-Culture in New Zealand 51

Ueblois, Capt. E. T. The Origin of thfijilenhaden Industry 40

Erkardt, Herr. The Peculiarities of Blue Carp 389

FinHch, Dr. O. Rejwrt on a Trip in (iermauy to Secure Carp for the United States Fish

Commi.ssiou • 220

Fi»4ber, F. B. Fishing and Fish-Culture in Florida 251

Forbes, Prof. S. A. The Food of Young Whitefish (Coregonus clupeiformis) 19

On the Food of Young Whitefish ( Coregonus) 269

An Inquiry into the First Food of Young Lake Whitefish (Coregonus clupeiforinis) .... 402

Oilbert, W. li. Growth of the Siilbling (Salmo salvelinvs) in the Old Colony Trout-Ponds

at Plymouth, Mass 427

Cioode, O.Brown. The Carangoid Fishes of the United States — Pompanoes, Crevall6s,

Amber-Fish, &:c 30

Notes on the Life-History of the Eel, Chiefly Derived from a Study of Recent European

Authorities 71

Ooode, a. Brown, and Capt. J. W. Collina. The Winter Haddock Fishery of New

England 226

<>reen, Seth. Rearing of California Mountain Trout (iSoJmo mdetw) 23

Salmon Caught in Genesee River, New York 23

The Introduction of Land-Locked Salmon into Woodhull Lake, New York, and the Sub-
sequent Capture of Some of Them 421

Haack, Director. A Geiinan View of the American Section in the Berlin Fishery Ex-
hibition 57

Harding, Cbarles W. Inquiries Concerning the Propagation of American Smelt and

Shad, and Notes on the Fisheries of the Wash in England 428

VI TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Page.

Elarding, Oarrick M. Susrsestions to Fish Culturists 55

llavrkius, J. W. An Opinion Eegiirding the Influence upon the Coast Fisheries of the

Steamers used in the Menhaden Fishery 266

llcinphill, Henry. On the Habits and Distribution of the Geoduck, a Clam of the Pacific
(Gbjcrmeris generosa, Gld.), with Sucgestions as to its Introduction into the Atlantic Coast

of the United States 200

Ileriiics, l>r. Otto. On the Mature Male Sexual Organs of the Conger-Eel {Conger vulgaris),

with some Observations on the Male of the Common Eel {Anguilla vulgaris, Fleming) 126

Ilessel, Rudolph. Artificial Culture of Medicinal Leeches and of Species of Helix 264

lliester, Charles £. Fish Culture for Profit 382

Sliiickley, Isaac. The Fish-Eating Cows of Provincetown, Mass 134

Blobbs, Orlando. A List of Ohio Eivcr Fishes Sold in the Markets 124

Hughes, Suiiih E. Live Ponds for Fish in New Jersey 349

Huxley, Prof. T. H. Sec S. Walpole.

Jordan, Darid S., and Charles H. Oilbert. Descriptions of Nineteen New Species

of Fishes from the Bay of Panama 306

Ivrause, Dr. Cod and Halibut Fisheries near the Shumagin Islands 259

liaighton, Cedric. The Capture of Shad at Isles of Shoals, New Hampshire 421

L.eonard, J. A. Plan of the International Fisheries Exhibition to be held at Edinburgh,

Scotland, and a List of Prizes to be Awarded 390

lUcOonald, ITIarshall. Experiments in the Transportation of the German Carp in a Lim-
ited Supply of Water 215

ITIarquette, Oeorge R. Extraordinary Floods in the Potomac River 258

ITIartin, S. J. Coal Ashes as a Means of Raising Mackerel in Purse-Seines 65

Methods of Using "Willard's Piitent Pocket for Mackerel 65

First Appearance of Fish at Gloucester, 1881 66

Notes on the Mackerel Fishery of 1881 132

Notes on New England Fisheries 133

Notes on New England Food-Fishes • 202

Notes on the Gloucester Fishery 263

Cod-Fisbing with Gill-Nets in Ipswich Bay, Massachusetts 264

Fishery News from Gloucester, Massachusetts 265

Notes on the Gloucester Fisheries 268

Pollock-Fishing in Boston Bay 342

Cod Gill-Nets in Ipswich Bay, Massachusetts 343

Fi.shery Notes from Gloucester, Massachusetts 381

(Jodfishing Avith Gill-Nets from Gloucester, Massachusetts 384

Fishery Notes from Gloucester, Massachusetts, Concerning Cod, Haddock, Herring, Hali-
but, and Mackerel 394

Notes on the Fisheries of Gloucester, Massachusetts 419

Notes on the Fishej-ies of Gloucester, Massachusetts ^ 425

iTIilncr, J. W. Summary of Fishing Records, for Shad and Alewives, kept at Willow Branch

Fishery, North Carolina, from 1835 to 1874 396

Mordecai, M. !>., E. R. Food of the Shad of the Atlantic Coast of the United States

(Alosa prcestabilis De Kay), and the Functions of the Pyloric ccBca 277

IVoi-ny. E . R. On the Propagation of the Striped Bass 67

A Proposed Pond for Rearing Striped Bass (Roccus lineatus) in Delaware Bay 260

0»>boi-u. J. H. Notes and Suggestions Concerning the Florida Shad Fishery 351

Pasco. I. 1>. A Call for Carp from Nevada 29

Ryder, Francis W. Codfish caught near Cape Charles, Mouth of Chesapeake Bay, in 1834. 384

Ryder. .John A. A Valuable Edible MoUusk of the West Coast 21

Preliminary Notice of the More Important Scientific Results Obtained from a Study of

the Embryology of Fishes 22

>'ote8 on the Development, Spinning Habits, and Structure of the Four-Spined Stickle-
back (Apeltes qtiadracus) 24

Development of the Spanish Mackerel (Cybium maculatum) 135

On the Retardation of the Development of the Ova of the Shad (Alosa sapidissima), with

Observations on the Egg-Fungus and Bacteria 177

A Contribution to the Development and Morphology of the Lophobranchiates {Hippo-
campus aniiqvoruni, the seahorse) 191

'J'ABLK OF CONTENTS. VII

Page.

— The Protozoa auil Frotopbytes Cousiileied as the, Piiinary or Imlircct Source, of the Food

of Fishes 236

— The Micropyleof the Egg of the White Perch 282

— Development of the Silver Gar (Belone longirostriis), with Observations ou the Genesis
of the IJlood in Embryo Fishes, and a Comparison of Fish Ova with those of other Verte-
brates 283

— On the Nuclear Cleavage-Figures Developi<l dmiug the Segmentation of the Germinal

Disk of the Egg of the Salmon 335

— Notes on the Breeding, Food, and Green Color of the Oyster 403

— Additional Observations on the Retardation of the Development of the Ova of the Shad. 422

Shears, E . E . Carp in the Hudson River 54

Sniilcy, Cha!«. W. Changes in the Fisheries of the Great Lakes during the decade 1870-

1880 252

Stoii<>. Ijiviiig»«ton. Mortality of McCloud River Salmon in 1881 134

!<^v4-iits<-h, Joseph. A Depot for Embryonated Eggs of all the Valuable Kinds of Fish. . . 345

Throckmorton, S. K. The Introduction of Striped Bass into California 61

Description of the Fish- Way in Pitt River, California 202

Walpole, S., and Prof. T. H. Huxley. Disease Among the Salmon of Many Rivers

of England and Wales 429

Weddige, Herr. Castrating Fish 59

WigS' Dr« Oeorge. On the Insensibility of the German Carp to Freezing 402

Willis, H. Shad Fisheries of the Susijuehanna River Fifty-Six Tears Ago 261

Wilmot, Saninel. Introduction of California Salmon into Ontario, with Remarks on the

Disappearance of Maine Salmon from that Province 347

— Remarks on the Scarcity of Male and Grilse Salmon in the Rivers of Ontario, Canada .. 379

Wilson, Thomas. The Proposed Introdnction of Catfish into Ghent 340

^Vorth, S. Cr. The Artificial Propfigation of the Striped Bass {Eoeeus Uneatus) in Albemarle

Sound - 174

Wright, Abel A. A Georgia Carp Pond 08

Wright, Harrison, Chairman of the Committee. Report of a Committee of tlie "Wyoming

Historical and Geological Society on the Earlj^ Shad Fisheries of the Nortli Branch of the

Susquehanna River 352

Zentz, F, On the Races or Varieties of Carp, Denying the Existence of Blue Carp and Gold

Carp 387

MiSCEI.LA-NF.OrS AND REPRINTS.

Protection of Whales 17

American Birds, Animals, and Fishes f ir New Zealanders 53

Peat-Bogs as FishPonds 58

Official Papers Relating to the Projjosed International Fisheries Exhibition at Edinburgh

in 1882 130

Pachaly's Car for Transporting Fish , 207

Memorandum of some Results of the Artifical Propagation and Planting of Fish, dne

mainly to the Efforts of the United States Fish Commission 208

Introduction of the Aland, or Orfe, into England 218

Some Results of the Artificial Propagation of Maine and California Salmon in New

England and Canada, Recorded in the years 1879 and 1880 270

Progress and Result.': of Fisli-Culture 396

LLST OF PLATES

con CII-LNETS.

Page.

Platk T. — Method of hauging cod j;ill-nets iu Norway 16

Plate II. — Manner in which the glass floats are attached to tlie tops of the nets 16

Plate III. — "Way in which the sinkers are fastened to the bottom of the nets 16

Plate IV. — Size of twine of which the American nets are made 16

Plate V. — Norwegian method of setting the nets at the bottom 16

Plate VI. — Way in which nets are set at different depths to ascertain the position of the fish ... 16
Plate VII. — Manner in which the ends of a gang of nets are attached to the stone anchors and

buoy -line in Xorway ; also showing the position of the glass floats and sinkers 16

Plate VIII. — Way in which cod gill-nets are set at the bottom on the east coast of Newfoundland . 16

Plate IX. — The ordinary way in which cod gill-nets iiie .set floating at Newfoundland 16

Plate X. — Norwegian net and trawl buoy made of gla.ss floats 16

Plate XI. — Way in which cod gill-nets are set for underrunning in Ipswich Bay 16

Plate XII.— Manner in which the nets are underrun 16

SPANISH mackerel.

Plate XIII.— ( I.) Fig. 1. Micropyle and micropylar area of egg 166

2. Fninipregnated egg 166

3. Morula stage of cleavage of the germinal disk 166

4. Genninal disk of egg 166

.5. Incipient blastoderm of the egg 166

6. Developing blastoderm of the egg 166

7. Blastoderm of the egg 7 hours after impregnation 166

8. Embryo 11 hours after impregnation 166

Plate XIV. -( II. i Fig. 9. Caudal view of embryo 168

10. Embryo 14 hours after impregnation 168

11. Transverse section of caudal view of embryo 168

12. Embryo 18 hours after impregnation 168

13. Young Spanish mackei-el 24 hours from impregnation 168

Plate XV. — (III.) Fig. 14. Young Spaui.sh mackerel 30 hours from impregnation 170

io. Young Spanish mackerel 45 hours from impregnation 170

Pl.VIE XVI.— (IV.) Fig. 16. Spanish mackerel three days after it left the egg 172

17. Head of Spanish mackerel six days after hatching 172

sea-horse.

Plate XVII. Fig. ] . Young sea-horse (Hlppocatnpu.s antiquvruin) i. . . . 199

SILVER (iAR.

Plate XVIII. Fig. 1. Egg of the silver giir {Ttjlosurus limgirostris) 300

2. Gerniiual disk 45 hours after impregnation 300

3. Germinal disk 10 hours after inipieguation ,- 300

4. Blastoderm of silver gar 24 hours :\ Iter impregnation 300

5. Blastoderm of silver gar 31-J- hours after impregnation '. ... 300

C. Blastoderm of silver gar 43f hours after impregnation 300

7. Head of embryo of silver gar 51 hours after impregnation 300

8. Tail of embryo of silver gar 51 hours after impregnation 3fio

BULLETIN

OF THE

UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

1881.

OIIil^-NETS IIV THE COD-FISIIERV : A I>EI«$CRIPTIOX OF TBE NOR-

ITEOIAIV €OD-IVETS, ^VITII DIRECTIONS FOR THFIR IJ8F, AND A
HISTORY OF THEIR INTRODUCTION INTO THE UNITED STATES.

By CAPT. J. W. COLLINS.

[twelve plates.]

SYNOr'SIS.

A.— INTRODUCTION.

Page.

Cod gill-nets introduced by United States Fisli Commission in 1878 3

Information obtained at International Fishery Exhibition 4

Preparation of report 4

Acknowledgments due 4

B.— CONSTEUCTION AND EIG OF THE NETS.
1. — Norwegian methods.

Twine 4

Size of mesh 4

Size of nets 4

Method of hanging 4

Methods of j)reserving the nets by tanning, &c 5

Floats 5

Sinkers 5

Anchors ; 6

Buoys 6

2. — Newfoundland methods.

Twine 6

Size of mesh 6

Size of nets , 6

Method of hanging 6

Methods of tanning, «fec 7

Floats 7

Sinkers 7

Anchors , 7

Bnoys 7

Bull. U. S. F. C, 81 1 April 13,1881.

2 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

3. — American methods.

Twine ''--V ''

Size of mesli 7

Size of tlie nets 8

Method, of hanging and tanning 8

Dutch method of tanning cotton nets 8

Floats - 8

Sinkers 8

Anchors 8

Buoys 8

C— THE FISHEKIES.

1.— The Norwegian fisheries.

Date of introduction of cod gill-nets 9

Where nets are most extensively used 9

Season when nets are mostly used 9

Boats used in the net-fisheries 9

Number of men to a boat 9

Number of nets to a boat 9

Methods of setting the nets 9

How and when the nets are hauled 10

Results of the fisheries 10

Statistics of the Lofoten Island fisheries 11

Comparative earnings of the net-fishermen 11

Increase of the net-fishery 11

Quality of the netted fish 11

2. — The Newfoundland fisheries.

Where the nets are mostly used 11

When and how the nets are used 12

The catch 12

3. — The American fisheries.

Introduction of cod gill-nets 12

Causes which led to the use of nets in the cod-fisheries 12

The method of underrunning nets introduced 13

Where the nets have been used 13

Kind of boats employed , 13

Number of men to a boat 13

Number of nets to a boat 13

Methods of setting the nets 14

How and when the nets are undeiTun 14

Eesults of the net-fishery for cod 14

Quality of cod taken in nets 15

Advantages that may result from the use of nets by bank cod-fishermen.. ..... 15

D.— EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

A.— INTEODUCTIOX.

Although gill-nets have long been used in Norway as an apparatus
for the capture of cod, and are considered quite indispensable by the
fishermen of that country, they have never until recently been intro-
duced into the United States. In 1878 Prof. Spencer F. Baird, Com-
missioner of Fisheries, knowing how profitably these were employed by
the Norwegian fishermen, decided to make exi)eriments with them at
Cape Ann, with a view to their introduction among the cod-fishermen
of this country. He accordingly secured a set of the Norwegian nets,
which were sent to Gloucester and there tested by the employes of the
Commission.

Experiments were made when the winter school of cod were on the
shore grounds, but the results obtained were not entirely satisfactory,
owing chiefly to the fact that the nets were found far too frail for the
large cod which frequent our coast in winter. This was apparent from
the numerous holes in the nets, which indicated plainly that large fish
had torn their way through, none being retained excepting those that
had become completely rolled up in the twine. The current also swept
them afoul of the rocky bottom, which injured them still more, so that
they were soon rendered nearly unfit for use. The nets were invariably
in bad order when hauled from the water, but even under such unfavor-
able circumstances nearly a thousand pounds were caught on one occa-
sion. This seemed to indicate that nets of sufiicient strength might be
used to good advantage, at least on some of the smoother fishing grounds,
along the coast and on the outer banks.

These preliminary trials, therefore, having demonstrated that nets
could be used to good advantage in the American cod-fisheries, Professor
Baird availed himself of the first chance that offered for obtaining definite
knowledge of the methods of netting cod in Norway, with the intention
of disseminating this information among American cod-fishermen.

The opening of the International Fishery Exhibition at Berlin, Ger-
many, in the spring of 1880, presented a favorable opportunity for ac-
complishing this purpose. Professor Baird having appointed the writer
as one of the commission to attend the exhibition on the staff of Prof. G.
Brown Goode, desired that a careful study should be made by him of
the foreign methods of deep-sea fishery as represented at the exhibi-
tion. The method of capturing cod with gill-nets, as practiced by the
Norwegian fishermen, was mentioned as a subject which should receive
especial consideration, and it was suggested that it might even be de-
sirable to visit Norway, so that the practical operation of this fishery
might be observed.

4 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

It is probable, however, that the information on this subject that has
been obtained at the exhibition and elsewhere will be sufiQcient to en-
able our fishermen to use gill-nets for cod with success.

It was the original intention of Professor Baird that a report of the
observations made at the Berlin exhibition should be published as soon
after the return of the commissioners as possible, but circumstances
delayed for a time its preparation.

The use of gill-nets in the cod-fisheries at Ipswich Bay the present
winter — an account of which will be given — has resulted in complete
success, and there is strong probability that they will be introduced
into the bank-fisheries, as well as those along the coast ; therefore. Pro-
fessor Baird has suggested the prepara.tion of this pamphlet by the
writer, and it is hoped that it may serve the purpose for which it is in-
tended, by supplying information that may lead to the more profitable
prosecution of the American cod- fisheries.

Acknowledgments are due to Mr. Frederik M. Wallem, the !N"orwegian
Commissioner to the Berlin exhibition, for information furnished con-
cerning the gill-nets and their use in the Norwegian cod -fisheries. The
account of the Newfoundland cod gill-nets, methods of fishing, t&c, is
given largely on the authority of Capt. Solomon Jacobs, of Gloucester,
Mass., who is a native of Newfoundland, and has had considerable ex-
perience in the cod-fisheries along the east coast of that island.

B.— CONSTRUCTION AND RIG OF THE NETS.

1. — Norwegian JiETnoDS.

The nets used in the Norwegian cod-fisheries are usually made of hemp
twine, of two, three, or four threads, but occasionally of flax or cotton.
The three-layed hemp twine, which is the most common size, weighs a
pound to 400 or 120 fathoms. It is mostly spun on the spinning wheel
by the fishermen's families, and the nets are almost exclusively made by
the fishermen and their wives and children. Some of the hemp twine,
however, is furnished by the factories of Norway and Great Britain,
which also supply all of the cotton and linen twine.

The size of the mesh varies some w hat, according to the locality where
the nets are to be used, as it is necessary to make the mesh correspond
to the size of the fish that frequent different parts of the coast, or make
their appearance at different; seasons. The smallest mesh is about 5|
inches (2^0 inches square) and the largest 8 inches (I inches square).
Those exhibited at Berlin were 7 and 8 inch mesh.

The length of the nets varies from 10 to 20 fathoms, the average length
of those used at the Lofoten Islands being 15J fathoms, when hung, and
they are from twenty-five to sixty meshes deep. Nets about thirty
meshes deep are generally used, while those of sixty meshes are em-
ployed only where there is little or no current. The nets are hung both
to single and double lines, and these vary somewhat in size. Those ex-

BUX^LETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 5

hibited were liiing to double lines, each being ^ of an inch in circum-
ference, while Mr. Walleui says that 2-inch rope when single, and 1-inch
rope when double, is the size commonly used at the Lofoten Islands.
Some of the nets are hung to lines only at the top and bottom, having
none across the end, while others have them on the ends as elsewhere.
This last method is said to have been recently introduced, and is con-
sidered an improvement when the line is a little short, so that the net
will be a trifle slack or baggy. About one-third of the net is taken up
in hanging; that is, if a net is 30 fathoms long, stretched out, before it
is hung, it will be about 20 fathoms long afterwards. They are hung
with twine about the same size as that of which they are made. The
end of the twine is first made fast to the hanging line, then hitched to
the upper part of one of the meshes, the distance between the line and
mesh being equal to one side of the mesh ; then back to the line again,
around which a clove-hitch is taken, thus forming one-half of a mesh,
as shown in Plate I. This method of hanging is thought by the IS^or-
wegian fishermen to be superior to an^' other for large-mesh nets. They
are generally prepared for use in Norway by tanning, and will last, when
so prepared, from one to five seasons.

The nets are supported upright in the water by floats of wood, cork,
or hollow glass. At the Lofoten Islands, where nets are more exten-
sively used than elsewhere, the glass floats are preferred, it being said
that they replace to great advantage the old wooden ones, which failed
to prevent the nets from settling on the bottom. The fishermen from
Sondmor, however, who fish on banks where there is a strong current,
prefer wooden to glass floats, since, it is said, the latter are so much
more easily carried nway by the tide, causing the loss of many nets ;
while the principal objection to wooden floats is that they are so easily
waterlogged. But this is thought to be the lesser evil of the two,
since they can, at the worst, only sink to the bottom with the nets,
whence they may easily be recovered. From this experience of the Nor-
wegian fishermen, it maybe inferred that while glass floats are preferable
for general use, they are not so suitable as either wood or cork buoys
where there is a strong tide. Tlie glass floats are about 5 inches in
diameter, with a covering of tarred marlin or spun-yarn hitched over
them, to which is attached an eye. In this eye is bent the small rope
that holds them to the net. When so prepared for use these floats are
quite strong, and break far less frequently than might be supposed.
They withstand the pressure of water when submerged better than any-
thing that has been tried, but are sometimes filled with water — " drunken,"
it is called — when set in deep water. Plate II is intended to show the
glass float and the way in which it is attached to the net. The small
ropes with which these are held vary in length fi'om 1^ to 6 feet.

Oblong-shai)ed stones, from 3 to 5 inches in lengtli, are used for
sinkers. By exijerieuce the fishermen learn how large these should
be to sink the nets to the desired depth. From ten to twelve are fas-

6 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

tened to the bottom of the net at equal distances apart, being held in a
double string, as shown in Plate III.

Large stones are used instead of anchors to hold the nets to the bot-
tom. These weigh from 72 to 144 pounds, the heavier one heading the
current, and the smaller being on the other end of the gang, containing
twenty to thirty-five nets. Besides these " mooring rocks," there are
others of smaller size that are held to the nets by a foot-line, one end of
which is fastened to the stone which lies on the bottom, and the other
to the rope that connects the lower part of the nets together. The
larger stones are generally slung with rope, but sometimes with a band
of iron around them, with an eye or ring to which the foot-line can be
fastened. Iron anchors are not used, as the nets are liable to be torn
on them should they settle on the bottom. Plates VI and VII show
how the mooring rocks and the other stones are attached to the nets.

Buoys of different kinds are used by the Norwegian fishermen, but,
according to Mr. Wallem, at the Lofoten Islands glass buoys, having a
capacity of about three to five gallons, are the most common. These
are generally egg-shape and are covered in the same manner as the
glass floats. Sometimes a buoy is made by fastening several of the
latter around a staff, as shown in Plate X. The glass buoys, of both
kinds, are employed in the trawl as well as the net-fishery; they will
rise to the surface again after having been under water for several days,
an advantage not possessed by other kinds, and it seems that buoys of
this description might be profitably used by our bank-fishermen, who
frequently lose large quantities of gear on account of the wooden ones
bursting and filling with water when they are submerged to any con-
siderable depth. Hard- wood, iron-bound kegs are used by some of the
Norwegian net-fishermen. From two to four glass floats, such as are on
the nets, are fastened to the bight of the buoy-line, at different dis-
tances from the buoy, for the purpose of keeping the slack or scope
from going on the bottom when there is no current. Where there is a
strong tide, and a probability of the large buoy being drawn under the
surface of the water, a number of the glass balls are attached to it with
a line, these serving as "watch-buoys" for the other. Plate V shows
how the glass floats are fastened to the buoy-line and buoy.

2. — Newfoundland methods.

The nets employed in the Newfoundland cod-fisheries are usually
made of hemp twine one size smaller than salmon-twine, which is also
occasionally used. The size of the mesh is generally about 6 inches
(3 inches square), a large mesh not being required for the small fish
that frequent that coast. The nets vary in length from 50 to 80 fathoms,
and in depth from 3 to 4 fathoms. They are hung to the lines in the
same way that the Norwegian nets are, tlie foot-line being l:|-inch rope,
while small-sized double lines, of opposite lays, are the hangings for
the top and ends. Eope is used on the lower part of the net, because,

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 7

when set close to the bottom, small line would probably be bitten off by
ground-sharks, thereby causing the loss of a portion of the net.

To preserve the nets the I^Iewfoundlaud fishermen make a mixture of
tan and tar, which is thought better than either used separately. The
tan is commonly made from spruce buds, fir bark, and bu-ch bark (hem-
lock bark is not used), which are boiled together until it is sufficiently
strong, when the bark is removed, and tar added in the proportion of
five gallons of tar to two hundred gallons of tan, the whole being stirred
well together. Some care is necessary in api)lying this, or else it will
not be evenly distributed on the net. The custom of mixing tan and
tar has doubtless been introduced from England, as it is known that
the Cornish fishermen do this, pouring out their tanning liquor into
large vats with coal tar, and this mixture is found to iireseive the nets
much longer than simple tanning. The Xewibundland nets, when pre-
pared in this manner, generally last about four seasons.

The floats are made of the best bottle-cork, when obtainable. Before
being used they are di^jped in hot pitch or tar, after which it is said
they will stand for four weeks at the bottom in 50 fathoms before getting
water-soaked. The fishermen have two sets of floats — one, when soaked,
being replaced by the other.

The sinkers most generally in use by the Newfoundland fishermen are
made by tying small rocks in a bag of old netting or cloth; but lead
sinkers, similar to those on seines, are occasionally attached to the nets.
The sinkers weigh from 1 to 2 j)ounds, are about 13 feet apart, and are
fastened close to the bottom of the net.

Anchors, rocks, and stone killicks are used for moorings to the nets.
The former weigh from 20 to 25 i)ounds each, while the killicks and
rocks vary from 25 to 60 j)ounfls, the heavier heading the current, and
the lighter being on the opposite end of the net or gang.

The buoys are generally made of dry fir poles, 6 to 8 inches in diame-
ter, are usually from 3 to 4 feet long, and sharpened at one end, through
which is a hole for the strap that the buoy-line bends to. Kegs are also
used for buoys.

3. — AlVIERICAN METHODS.

The nets that were first tried in Ipswich Bay were made of twine
about the same size as that used in Norway ; indeed, part of them were
Norwegian nets that had been lent to Captain Martin by the United
States Fish Commission. These were found, as in the previous trials
made by the Commission, entirely too weak for the purpose, and were
soon badly torn, not, however, before it had been proved that suitable
nets could be very successfully used. The nets that have since been
constructed for this fishery are made of Scotch flax twine, twelve-thread,
of the size represented in Plate lY. The twine is very strong, and is
found to be well adapted for the capture of large cod. The nets are 9
inch mesh (4J inches square), that size having been found well adapted

8 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

for taking the large winter cod iu that locality. Smaller- meshed nets
are, however, being prepared for the bank and summer shore-fisheries.

The size of the nets depends somewhat on the locality where they are
used, and also on the movements or habits of the fish. In some places
where the cod keep close to the bottom, long shoal-nets are probably
the most suitable, while at other points, as at the Lofoten Islands, where
they are often found in the greatest numbers some distance from the
bottom, deeper nets are required.

The nets made for Captain Martin were 50 fathoms long and 3 fath-
oms deep, but as nearly all the fish were caught near the bottom, other
I)arties have since had shoaler and longer nets ; the most of those lately
made for the shore-fleet are 100 fathoms long and 2 deep.* These are
hung to small double lines of opposite lays, and they are tanned before
being used. It may be well to mention here the Dutch method of tan-
ning cotton herring-nets, which is thought better than any other by those
foreign fishermen, and may, perhaps, be applied with equal advantage
to other nets, when made of that material. The tan is made by boiling
catechu in water in the proportion of one liound of the former to two
and a half gallons of the latter. When it is sufficiently strong the nets
are soaked in it for twenty-four hours, after which they are dried. They
are tanned and dried three times, and then soaked iu linseed oil. A
pound of oil is provided for each i^ound of net, and they are allowed to
remain in it as long as any will be absorbed. They are then well drained
and spread out on the ground to dry, after which the process is com-
X^leted by tanning them once more.

Glass floats, similar to those of Norway, have been used on the Amer-
ican nets.t These cost about 30 cents each, when covered, and twenty-
fi.ve of them are attached to a 50-fathom net. Bricks are used for sink-
ers, one of which is fastened to the foot of the net directly beneath each
of the floats, they being held iu the same manner that the stone sinkers
are, as shown in Plate III. It is probable that suitable metal sinkers
may soonj^e devised, and perhaps desirable improvements may be made
in the floats as well. The cost of nets 50, fathoms long, with floats at-
tached, is about $18.

Fourteen-pound trawl-anchors have been found quite suitable for Ips-
wich Bay, one being attached to each end of a gang of three nets, but
it is quite i^robable that heavier ones will be required where there is
deeper water and more current.

The buoys are common quarter-barrels, rigged in the same manner as
for trawling.

* These nets liave beeu princii^ally made by tlie American Net and Twine Company,
and H. & G. W. Lord, Boston, Mass.

t These are made at the glass factories in Boston.

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 9

C— THE FISHEEIES.
I. — The Norwegian fisheries.

The method of taking cod with gill-nets is said to have been intro-
duced into Xorway about 1685, and nets are now employed extensively
at the principal fishing stations along the coast of that country, but
more than anywhere else in the great winter cod-fisheries that are car-
ried on at the Lofoten Islands. These islands are situated on the west
coast of Norway, north of the Arctic circle, and the banks in their vicin-
ity are the favorite resort of immense schools of cod that gather there
to spawn. Toward the latter part of December the first schools appear
upon the grounds along the outer side of the Lofoten group, and soon the
"coming-in" fish are taken on those banks lying inside, in the West-
fiord. The arrival of these fish, which are the forerunners of the count-
less millions that invariably follow, is hailed with great delight by the
fishermen, many of whom resort hither from other parts of the country
to engage in these fisheries, so many often being congregated here in
the winter that at some points they are quite crowded.

The bank which is the iJrincipal resort of the fishermen from Xord-
land extends along the coast of Lofoten from the island of Eost to the
Strait of Raft. This is from three to twelve miles from the land, and
has a depth varying from 40 to 80 fathoms.

The fishing is at its height in Februarj^ and March, while the fish are
spawning. At this period, especially during the latter month, the cod
are said to be very restless and disinclined to take the hook, and are
usually caught in nets, the catch being increased and a better quality
of fish obtained by using them. The experience of the Norwegian fish-
ermen shows that the fatter the fish the less it is inclined to take the
bait ; therefore the most skillful fishermen are provided with nets as
well as trawls.

The fishing is carried on in open boats. The net-boats, which, as a rule,
are larger than those used for trawling, are from 35 to 40 feet long, 9 to 10
feet wide, and 3 feet deep. These are provided with a single mast,
on which is set a large quadrangular sail, and each boat has also ten
or twelve oars, by means of which the crew can row rapidly even against
the wind. The crew of a boat fitted for the net-fishery varies from six to
eight men, and the number of nets from sixty to a hundred. These are
not all in use at the same time, but the greater part are kept in reserve
to supply the place of such as may need repairs or drying, or that may
be lost. From twenty to thirty-five nets are fastened together and set
in a gang by each boat on a specified part of the fishing ground. Where
so many are fishing at one place they are obliged to adopt some rule for
setting the gear to prevent its fouling, since that would result in loss to
all and soon render a valuable fishery practically worthless. A certain
part of the fishing ground is therefore assigned for the nets, and an-

10 BULLETFN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

other part for the trawls, as it is evident they should not be set together.
The nets are prepared for setting by fastening them together at top and
bottom, attaching the sinkers, and bending on the large anchor-stones
in the manner already alluded to, and which is shown in Plates V, VI,
and VII. The nets are so arranged that they will set close to the bot-
tom or some distance above it, according to the position of the fish.

The cod in the vicinitv of the Lofoten Islands are said to be some-
what erratic in their movements, and it frequently happens that they
are found in the greatest numbers quite a distance from the bottom.
The fishermen therefore set their nets at a depth where they think the
fish are most plentiful, and several expedients are resorted to to find
this out, such as trying with a hand-line, and setting a gang of nets
with one end at the bottom and the other some distance from it, as re-
presented in Plate VI.

ISTets are occasionally set floating, but this method of setting is prac-
ticed but little except at the stations east of Sorvaagen. One experi-
enced in fishing soon learns at what depth the most fish can be taken,
and places his apparatus accordingly.

The fishermen all start in the afternoon at a given signal to set their
gear, both nets and trawls being thrown out simultaneously to x)revent
them from becoming tangled, though this is sometimes unavoidable on
account of the stron g winds and tides. The nets are set with or across
the current. As soon as they are out the boats return to the shore.*

At the Lofoten Islands the fishermen start out together in the morn-
ing to haul their nets ; in the darkness of the long nights they enter
their boats, for the brief daytime, often shortened by gloomy skies,
would be far too sHort for the work which has to be accomplished. They
regard neither cold nor storm as long as the waves are not too high, so
as to make fishing impossible. Hauling the heavily weighted nets,
sometimes from a depth of 80 to 100 fathoms, is a task requiring the
united strength of the boat's crew. The nets are hauled into the boats
and taken on shore, where they are cleaned and put in readiness to be
set again. But it must be remembered that in this region stormy
weather often continues for weeks at a time during the winter months,
making it imj)ossible for the fishermen to go out to the banks, and as a
rule fishing cannot be carried on more than two days in the week.

The daily fishing varies from a few scattering cod to several hundreds.
A catch of four to five hundred to a boat is considered very satisfactory,
although six hundred are often taken when everything is favorable,
even when they will not bite, and lines or trawls cannot be used. If
more than six or eight hundred are caught, the fishermen are obliged
to leave a i)art of the nets out until afternoon, as the boats can rarely
carry any more, especially in rough weather.

*At Sondmoi', where the banks lie some distance from the coast, the fishermen some-
times stfiy out over night during the month of April, when the nights have already
become quite clear. Usually, however, these men haul their nets and return them
again to the water, while they start for the shore to dispose of their catch.

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

11

The total catch of cod at the Lofoten Islands in 1878, according to
the report of the superintendent, was 24,000,000 in number. Of these,
upwards of 14,000,000 fish were caught with nets, 9,250,000 with lines,
and 1,250,000 with deep bait.*
divided as follows:

The men and boats engaged were

!N"et-fishmg

Line-fishing

Deep-bait fishing.
Hired men

Total

Fisher-
men.

13, 168

7,258
2,297
3,311

23, 034

Crews.

2,154

1,689

844

4,687

Boats.

*2, 430
1,977

t844

5,251

* 269 of these also occasionally used lines. 1 701 of these used no lines, and 143 used lines.

There was an increase from the year before of 2,542 in the number of
net-fishermen, an increase of 417 in the number of deep-bait fishermen,
and a decrease of 1,504 in the number of line-fishermen.

Highest total sum earned by net-fisherman $214 40

Lowest total sum earned by net-fisherman 48 24

Highest total sum earned by line-fisherman 120 60

Lowest total sum earned by line-fisherman 32 16

Highest total sum earned by deep-bait fisherman 85 76

Lowest total sum earned by deep-bait fisherman 42 88

The superiority of the nets over lines and trawls, as shown by the
respective earnings of the fishermen, has, as might be exi)ected, led to
an additional increase in that branch of the fishery, and in 1879 it is
stated that 2,532 boats, with crews numbering 14,322 men, fitted out for
the net-fishery. The larger amount earned by the net fishermen is due
to the better quality of fish taken by them more than to the increased
catch, though this is also generally obtained. It has been found that
the largest and fattest cod do not bite at the hook, but must be sought
after with gill-nets, and it therefore follows that netted fish furnish
a very superior article of merchandise. It sometimes requires but 210
cod caught in a net against 300 taken on a hook to furnish the same
amount of liver, about 26 J gallons, and the livers of the netted fish, yield
much more oil to the gallon than those of the trawl or line fish. In con-
clusion, it may be added that pollock are taken in gill-nets as well as cod.
During the winter season large schools of these fish visit the coast be-
tween the sixtieth and sixty- second parallels of latitude, and in the
summer and fall are found on the coasts of Nordland and Finmark,
where enormous quantities of them are taken by nets, trawls, and hand-
lines.

2. — The Newfoundland fisheries.

Gill-nets have long been used in the Newfoundland cod-fisheries, es-
pecially on the east and south coasts of the island, but the exact date of

^ Trawls are probably meant by lines, and hand-lines by deep bait.

12 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

their iutrodiiction is unknown. It is asserted, however, that this method
of fishing- has been pursued since early in the present century, and is
st'ill carried on to some extent.

The coast of Newfoundland is indented with many large bays, which
are favorite feeding grounds for the cod. In the early summer they
make their appearance in pursuit of the capelin that gather in immense
numbers along the shores to spawn, and generally remain from three to
five weeks. During this time the cod usually keep near the surface of the
water and the nets are set floating, but later they are set at the bottom,
for when the capelin leave the shores the cod move into deeper water.
Plates VIII and IX show the methods of setting at the surface and bot-
tom. The nets are set singly or in gangs of three to seven. Two an-
chors are generally attached to a gang of floating nets, as represented
in the i)late, but where there is a current one is sometimes found suffi-
cient. They are usually set in the afternoon and hauled in the morning.
Owing to the comparative lightness of the anchors, fewer men are re-
quired to haul these than in Norway, as a single fisherman will some-
times take in one or more nets, though in most cases two or three go in
a boat. The net-fishing is far less productive than that of Norway, but
sometimes a large catch is made. Captain Jacobs states tiiat on one
occasion he took from four nets 2,000 cod, but says that this is rarely
equaled. These fish are what are known in the American markets as
• medium cod.

3. — The American fisheries.

Mention has been made of the introduction and trial of cod gill-nets
by the United States Fish Commission in 1878, but no attempt was
made by the fishermen to use them until the fall of 1880, when Capt.
George H. Martin, of Gloucester, Mass., master of the schooner Northern
Eagle, fitted out with them for the winter cod-fisheries ofl" Cape Ann
and in Ipswich Bay. The immediate cause which led to this trial was
the difficulty of procuring a supply of bait, which is a source of consid-
erable trouble to our shore-fishermen, and its cost, even when obtainable,
is such a heavy tax on this branch of the fishing industry that often the
fishermen hesitate to engage in it, fearing that it may result in loss
rather than gain. It was to obviate this difficulty about bait, and to
render our cod-fisheries more valuable in consequence, that led Professor
Baird to bring the cod gill-nets to the notice of the American fishermen.
The bait principally depended on by the shore-fishermen in the vicinity
of Cape Ann, during the fall and earlj^ winter, is young herring {Clupea
harengiis), known as the "spirling." The appearance of these fish about
the cajje is somewhat uncertain ; sometimes large schools remain for sev-
eral weeks, and at other times but few can be taken. There was so little
probability of getting a supply of bait in the fall of 1880 that CaiJtain
Martin hesitated about fitting out, fearing that the cost and difficulty
of securing a sux)i)ly of this article, which is indisi)ensable to the trawl-

i

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 13

fishery, would render the undertaking i)rofitless. While the matter of
fitting out was under consideration, gill-nets were suggested by the father
of Captain Martin, an employe of the Fish Commission, as a means to
solve the perplexities of the bait question. He thought the idea a good
one, and, together with several of his crew, visited the station of the
Commission at Gloucester, looked at the Norwegian nets tbat were there,
and consulted with the agent in charge as to the j)robabilities of success
and the methods of fishing with them. The result of this interview
was that he decided to fit out and give them a thorough trial, and nets
were therefore obtained for this purj^ose, part of them being supplied by
the Fish Commission. Before the trial trip was made, the writer met him
in Gloucester, and briefly explained the Xorwegian methods of using
the nets. It was thought, however, by Captain Martin, that they might
be '^ underrun," as trawls are sometimes, which would enable one man
to handle a gang of nets for which an entire boat's crew, six to eight
men,' is required in Norway.

Ipswich Bay, where the nets have been tried the present winter
(1880-'81), lies north of the prominent headland of Cape Ann, which
divides it from the waters of Massachusetts Bay on the south. A sandy
beach extends along the northern and western sides of the bay, and the
bottom sinks gradually from this, only reaching a depth of 25 to 30
fathoms at a distance of several miles from the land. The bottom of
the bay is a vast sandy waste, with only here and there small patches of
rocks or clay, supiiorting but a small amount of animal life that may
serve as food for the cod. It is therefore a spawning rather than a feed-
ing ground for these fish, and large schools visit the bay for this purpose
during the winter, generally remaining until late in the spring. The
nets are usually set along the northern part of the bay, but a few miles
from the shore, in about 15 fathoms of water, where there is less current
than at some points along the coast. They have been found much less
liable to chafe than trawls, the latter being badly damaged during a
storm, while the former, which were suspended by the floats, were not
injured.

The common dory has been used for fishing the nets, each vessel hav-
ing from seven to nine of them, according to the number of the crew.
The men go singly, one in each dory, and, while out, either setting or
underrunning, the vessel is kept under way, the captain and cook man-
aging her and i:>icking up the crew when the work is completed. Each
one of the Northern Eagle's crew, except the captain and cook, is pro-
vided with a gang of three nets, which are fastened together at top and
bottom when set, these forming a wall at the bottom of the sea 150
fathoms long and 3 fathoms deep, being held in position by an anchor
at either end. The anchor-lines are 50 fathoms in length, and one end
of each is bent to the upper corner of the nets, as represented in

Plate XI.
Under favorable circumstances one man can set a gang of nets, by

14 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

letting the boat drift with the wind or tide and throwing them over as
it moves along, but, as a general rule, two men can accomplish this much
better. When setting for underrunning, the anchor is first thrown over,
and 25 fathoms of the line paid out, when the buoy -line is bent to it.*
The buoy and line are then thrown over, and the remainder of the an-
chor-line, the end of the latter being made fast to the nets, which are
the next to follow. A middle buoy is attached to the center of the gang.
When the nets are all out, the other anchor-line, with the buoy-line at-
tached, is veered out, and last of all the anchor is thrown over, which
finishes the work. The nets are usually set in the afternoon, and allowed
to remain setting for several days, unless for some reason the vessel
leaves the fishing ground. Even then, when forced to seek the shelter
of a harbor during a storm, they have sometimes been left out. The
distance at which the gangs of nets are set apart is said to be about 40
fathoms, but this is a matter to which no rule can be applied, as sur-
rounding circumstances will cause many variations. But few fish are
caught except at night, and, consequently, the nets are underrun only
in the morning, unless the men are detained by the weather until later
in the day. In underrunning, the fisherman goes to one of the buoys on
the end of his gang of nets, takes it in the dory, and hauls away on
the buoy-line, the buoy being thrown out on the other side and the line
allowed to run out on one side as fast as it is hauled in on the other.
When the anchor-line (underrunning line, as it is sometimes called) is up,
it is taken across the dory, and the fisherman hauls along towards the
nets. These are underrwn by pulling them in one si<le of the dorj , and,
as fast as the fish are removed, allowing them to pass over the other
side into the water, the anchors, which remain firmly fixed in the bot-
tem, holding them in position until the work is accompjished. When
the end of the gang is reached it is thrown off the dory, and the nets re-
main setting as before, needing no further attention until the next day.
When underrunning they may be taken across either the forward or after
part of the dory, as circumstances may require. Both of these methods
are represented in Plate XI I.

The time occupied in underrunning depends somewhat on the smooth-
ness of the sea, but more particularly on the amount of fish taken.
When the catch does not exceed more than 4,000 to 5,000 pounds to
the vessel, it is done in about two hours, but when 15,000 to 18,000
pounds are caught, about four hours are required.

The success that -has resulted from the use of nets in Ipswich Bay has
been quite remarkable, the catch being much more than that of the
trawlers fishing on the same ground. The amount taken for the first
three trials, with unfavorable weather and with inferior nets, was 4,000,
6,000, and 7,000 pounds, respectively.

On a trip ending January 11, 35,000 pounds of cod were taken by the

* It is probable that a better way -would be to fasten the buoy-line to the upper cor-
ner of the net where the end of the anchor-line is attached.

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 15

Northern Eagle, 8,000 pouuds of which were caught iu a siugie moiii-
ing. Two other vessels, which were absent the same length of time, fishing
at the same place with trawls, got only 4,000 and 8,000 pounds, respect-
ively. Since that time she has made another trip, taking the same
amount, 35,000 ijounds, in four days' fishing, 18,000 pounds of which
were caught in one day. On this day the schooner Christie Campbell,
of Portsmouth, set ten trawls (each trawl having 1,000 hooks) close to
the nets. The 10,000 hooks caught about 2,000 j)ounds of fish to the
18,000 taken iu the nets.

Captain Martin began fishing with the nets November 27^ 1880, and
up to the 20th of January, 1881, had caught 111,000 i)ounds of cod.
None of the trawlers took more than one-third of that amount, though
fishing at the same place. The netted fish are larger than those caught
on trawls, averaging, during the first six weeks' fishing, 23 pounds each.
Among these were individuals which weighed 75 and 80 pounds aj)iece,
but no small fish, such as are frequently taken on trawls, and can be
sold only at a reduced price. In addition to the advantages already' men-
tioned, no bait is, of course, required for net-fishing, and not only is the
expense for this article saved, but the loss of time and trouble incident
to securing it and also to baiting trawls is dispensed with. In consid-
eration of these facts it is not strange that quite a lively interest has
been manifested in the fishing communities, and that many vessels, both
of the shore and bank fleet, are being supplied with this kind of appa-
ratus for the cod-fishery. The advantages that may be secured by our
bank-fishermen from the use of these nets can hardly be overestimated.
It is altogether probable that they may be profitably emjiloyed on most
of the larger fishing grounds, especially the Grand and Western Banks,
and Banquereau. There is no good reason to doubt the practicability
of underruuning nets on these banks, especially on the shoaler parts.
They surely may be set and hauled on auy part where cod are now taken.
The use of these would obviate the necessity of leaving the bank before
a trip had been secured, as must now be done by trawlers, in order to
obtain a suxiply of bait. It is the general custom of the trawl-fisher-
men to use fresh bait, and since this will not keep longer than two to
three weeks, it is easy to see that much time must be lost in seeking for
it. Indeed, the supply is at all times so uncertain that some vessels are
not actually engaged in fishing more than one-half of the time, and it may
be safely said that bank-fishermen dp not spend much more than two-
thirds of their time on the fisuing ground, the remainder being occuined
in the search for bait. Again, a large sum of money is j)aid for bait,
and, all things considered, it is quite apparent that even if the daily
catch should be smaller than when trawls are used, the profits of the
trip would be much greater.

As has been mentioned, however, nets have been found to work much
better than trawls at Ipswich Bay, both on account of the quantity and
quality of the fish taken. Since these facts are established, there is no

16 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

reason to doubt that similar results may be obtained on the banks. The
difficulties of the bait question will then be done away with, and we may
therefore confidently anticipate a marked imi^rovement in the American
cod-fisheries as a result of this change in the methods of fishing, and an
emancipation of our bank-fishermen from their present dependence upon
Canada for sui)plies of bait and ice.

D.— EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

I
Plate I. — Metliod of hanging cod gill-nets in Norway.

1. Hanging roj^e or line.

2. Hanging twine.

3. Clove-hitcli around tlie rope.

4. Upper part of the net meshes.

5. Open knot, showing how it is made.

Plate II. — Manner in which the glass floats are attached to the top of the nets.

1. Glass float.

2. Eye of the float-covering.

3. Small roiie holding the float to the net.

4. Eye-splice in rope C, and way in which it is fastened to the net.
Plate III. — Way in which the sinkers are fastened to the bottom of the nets.

1. Sinker-stone.

2. Double line holding the sinker.

3. Foot of the net.

Plate IV. — Size of twine of which the American nets are made.
Plate V. — Norwegian method of setting the nets at the bottom.

1. Nets.

2. Large rocks used for moorings.

3. Buoy.

4. Buoy-line.

5. Glass floats attached to buoy-line.

6. Watch-floats.

Plate VI. — Way in which nets are set at different depths to ascertain the position of
the fish.

1. Nets.

2. Foot-lines by which the nets are held to the bottom.

3. Stone moorings to the nets.

4. Buoy-line.

5. Buoy.

Plate VII. — Manner in which the ends of a gang of nets are attached to the stone
anchors and buoy-line in Norway ; also showing the position of the glass floats
and sinkers.

1. Net.

2. Glass floats.

3. Sinkers.

4. Large stone anchor or mooring.

5. Anchor-line, called foot-line by the Norwegian fishermen.

6. Short rope, one end of which is bent to the lower corner of the net and the

other in an eye of the buoy-line.

7. Short rope, one end having an eye-splice in it through which the buoy-line

passes, and the other end bent to the upper corner of the net.

8. Buoy-line. The dotted lines show the probable position of the end of the net,

buoy-liue, &c., when swept back by the current.

Bull. U. S. F. C. 1381.

PLATE 1.

<M

CI"

01

©^

Bull U. S. F. C. 1881.

PLATE IL

BuU. U. S. F. C. 1881.

PLATE ILL

^-?^y?^^^?i-^^

BiilL 'J. S. F. C. 1881.

PLATE IV.

Bull. U. S. F. C. 18S1.

PLATE V.

BuU. U. S. r. C. 1881.

PLATE VI.

Bull. U. S. F. C. 1881.

PLATE VII.

Bull. U. S. F. C. 1881.

PLATE VIII.

BuU. U. 3. F. C. 1881.

PLATE IX.

#

Bull. U. S. F. C. 1881.

PLATE XL

Lull. U. S. y. C. 1881.

PLATE XII.

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 17

Plate VIII. — Way in which cod gill-nets are set at the bottom on the east coast of
Newfoundland.

1. Ends of the net or gang.

2. Stone killick, generally on the head end of the gang.

3. Stone mooring.

4. Auchor-liue, one end of which is bent to lower corner of the net, and the other

to the killick or stone mooring.

5. Buoy- lines. These are sometimes bent to the killicks, and at other times to

the lower corner of the net, as shown by the dotted line.

6. Buoys.

Plate IX. — The ordinary way in which cod gill-nets are set floating at Newfoundland.
1. Ends of the net or gang.
•2. Buoys.

3. Anchor-lines.

4. Anchors. (Iron anchors, stones, or stone killicksTiiay be used.)
Plate X. — Norwegian net and trawl buoy made of glass floats.

Plate XI. — Waj^ in which cod gill-nets are set for underrunuing in Ipswich Bay,

1. End of the gang of nets.

2. Anchor-line, also called the " underrunning line."

3. Anchor.

4. Buoy-line.

5. Buoy.

Plate XII. — Manner in which the nets are underrun.

PROTECTION OF WHAliES.*

[From a Christiania iiaper of January 25, 1881.]

As Norwegian laws cannot be enforced ontside of Norwegian territory,
the law of June 19, 1880, regulating the protection of whales on the
coast of Finmarken, left it to the King to determine the limits of that
portion of the sea to which protection should be apj)lied. We have re-
cently communicated a royal proclamation of January 5, 1881, giving
the limits referred to. According to this the zone of i^rotection extends
one geograx)hical mile from the coast, counted from the outermost islands
which are never under water. In the Varangerliord the outer limit of
the zone of protection is a straight line from Kibergnas to Grause-
Jacobselv; at Kibergnas, however, protection is to be enforced also out-
side that line at a distance less than one geographical mile from the coast.

The season of j^rotection extends from the beginning of the year till
the end of May. It is not easy to say beforehand what influence this
limitation of the fishing season will have on the whale-fisheries, which
are carried on in spring during the capelin-fisheries, and during suni-
mer. We do not possess sufficient data to show the result of the fish-
eries prior to the 1st of June and after that date. Svend Foyn has
informed us that of 45 whales caught by him in 1876, 5 were caught
during the period May 8 — when fishing commenced — till the 1st of June ;
In 1877, 13 whales were caught prior to the 1st of June, and in 1878,

* Fredning af Hi'ul. Translated by Herman Jacobson.

Bull. U. S. F. C, 81 2 April 1 3, 1 8 8 1 .

18 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

wheu altogether 97 were caught, 19 were caught prior to that date.
The difference shown above is, therefore, brought about by the early or
late commencement of the season and by the varying length of the
capelin- fisheries ; it should also be borne in mind that a number of
whales are caught every year outside the zone of protection, where
fishing is free all the year round.

The whale-fisheries hav'e increased in importance of late years and
form a considerable source of income to a number of our population.
As far as we remember, Svend Foyn commenced operations in good
earnest in 1868, and during the next eight or ten years he averaged 20
to 50 whales a year. After that period his fisheries increased rapidly ;
thus, in 1878 he caught 97 whales ; in 1879, 83 ; and in 1880, 85. A joint-
stock company, Jarfiord, in 1879 caught 45 whales, and in 1880, 60.
These favorable results have stirred up a spirit of speculation, and re-
cently there have been founded in and near Tonsberg no less than three
new joint-stock comx)anies for working* the whale-fisheries, viz, the
Stokke Company, which has bought a harbor at Pasvik, near Jarfiord,
the Fiumarken Company, which possesses a harbor in West Finmarken,
on the south coast of the island of Soro, and the Westfold Comj)any,
which has a harbor on the island of Magero, near the North Cape. Each
of these companies has a considerable capital and employs a steamer.

Whilst the protective law was being discussed, there was a great dif-
ference of opinion as to the advisability and necessity of limiting such
imi)ortant fisheries, already involving considerable interests ; and the
majority of the committee (of the Norwegian Parliament) who had the
matter in charge were opposed to it. What finally decided the com-
mittee to declare in favor of a i^rotective law was undoubtedly a regard
to the very generally prevailing opinion that the whale-fisheries have
exercised a hurtful influence on the cod-fisheries (capelin-fisheries).
The cod follows the capelin, and the capelin, it is said, is chased to-
wards the coast by the whale. It was maintained that the capeMn
would stay away if the whales were exterminated, and it was also said
that the manner in which the whale-fisheries are carried on, the noise
of the steamers, the shooting, &c., disturbed the capelin and chased
them away from the coast, and that the filth inseparably connected with
the preparing of the whale after it is caught would fill the sea-water and
the coast with impurities and refuse, and thereby keep the capelin away.
Science does not share this oi)inion, but maintains that the capelin seeks
the coast in order to spawn, but that the whale only comes to seek food.
It also is well to draw a comj)arison between the whales and the
schools of herrings which periodically approach the southern coast of
Norway. There is an old law prohibiting the catching of whales in a
herring-fiord; but no spring-herring fisherman will at this day entertain
the opinion that the whale chases the herrings towards the coast. Not
even in the southern i)ortion of Norway could any movement be set on

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 19

foot against the steamship traffic as a means of chasing the herrings
from the coast.

Greater weight might i^ossibly be attached to another reason advanced
in favor of a protective law, viz, that an nnlimited fishing season would
diminish the number of whales and seriously endanger the future of the
whale-fisheries. A reckless destruction of whales during the spawning
season would certainly be a most senseless proceeding; and if we con-
sider that last year no less than 145 whales were caught on a compara-
tivelj' small extent of coast, such a fear is not entirely unfounded. jSTot
long ago it has been found necessary to conclude an international con-
vention between Xorway, Sweden, Germany, Denmark, and England for
the purjiose of protecting the seal during its sj)awning season against
the war of extermination waged against it near Iceland, Greenland, and
Jan Mayen. It is to be hoped that it will be more generally recognized
that we owe it to the coming generations to protect the useful and inter-
esting animal life of the Arctic and Antarctic regions.

THE FOOO OF ¥OUNO WHITEFISS— COREOOIVUS CliVPEIFORHIIS.

By Prof. S. A. FORBES.

Dear Sir : The letter to Mr. Frank J^. Clark which you kindly sent
me last summer, resulted in an arrangement by which he was to hatch
out a lot of whitefish eggs in January, and send me the young fry at
intervals for a study of their food.

Having finished my study of these specimens, and thinking it prob-
able that you would like to know the result, I will give you a brief out-
line of the observations made.

Mr. Clark writes me that these fry were divided into two lots, one
(hatched January IS) being kept in a small tank in the hatchery, and
the other (hatched January 20) in a perforated can in the stream from
a spring. The water in the hatchery varied in temi^erature from 31^^
to 48°, but was usually at about 37° ; that of the spring was uniformly
at 470.

These lots were examined from the spring water February 1, 15, and
25. There were 242 individuals in these three lots. Only 8 of these gave
any evidence of food in the intestine, and these in only trivial quantity.
It included a few common forms of filamentous algte, with smaller
amounts of desmids and diatoms.

Samples of the water sent me contained an abundance of algoe, but
no animal life except protozoa and rotifera. The remainder of this lot
died late in February.

From the hatching-house four lots were sent, numbering 340 speci-
mens, February 1, 15, and 25, and March 15. The last of these had
reached a stage of development little, if any, in advance of that of the

20 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

first received from the spring. These fry were fed daily with gammari
in minute fragments.

Of the first 90, 4 showed signs of food, 3 in the form of a few grains
of dirt in the intestine, and the fourth a fragment of the crust of gam-
marus; in the second lot (111), 17 had eaten. I discovered 9 of these^
and found only fragments of Gammarus. Twelve out of the 90 in the
third lot had lately taken food ; 4 had eaten fragments of Gammarus ;
7, small particles of the leaves and stems of vascular plants ; 2, larvre
of Oulicidw and 1 , a Cypris, entire. In the fourth and last lot were 39
specimens ; 14 had taken food, 5 in such minute quantity that I did not
dissect them ; Gammarus fragments were found in 4 ; larvte of gnats
(one Chironomtis) in 3; and a minute vegetable fragment, a Cyclops, a
Cypris, and some undetermined entomostracan each in 1.

To recapitulate : The specimens from the spring ate only vegetable
food, but could apparently get nothing else. There was an abundance
of vegetation about them, but only 3^ per cent, of them took food at
all. They apparently died for want of animal food.

Fourteen per cent, of those from the hatching-house had taken food
(47 out of 340). Of the 35 dissected, 18 had eaten fragments of Gam-
marus; 5, minute insect larva^; 4, Entomostraca ; and 8, small i^articles
of vegetation. Few of these died, and those not used in the investiga-
tion were living a few days since.

A structural detail observed throws light on the question. With the
complete disapi)earance of the egg-sac (and not before) two small, but
stout, sharp, recurved teeth are developed on each side of the lower
jaw. These are well adapted to the capture of a minute living prey,
and apparently could not h ave any other use. I am very well satisfied,
on the whole, that the earliest food of this fish will prove to be Living
Entomostraca^ with probably some admixture of filamentous algfe. As
the gill-rakers are not developed at this early age, I don't see how
any smaller forms could be separated from the water, except accident-
ally.

The Gammarus " hash" makes evidently a very good substiute for the
Entomostraca. The thicker crust and the necessary loss of much of the
soft parts, in pulverizing the animals, make these less nourishing than
the natural food — a fact likewise indicated by the greater abundance of
the orange oil globules derived from Crustacea^ in the intestines of those
which had fed on Entomostraca.

I shall endeavor to collect some of the fry from Northern Lake, Mich-
igan, next month, if I can get away, with a view to putting these con-
clusions to a more definite test.

Very respectfully, your obedient servant.

S. A. FOEBES.

Professor S. F. Baird.

State Laboratory of Natural History,

Normal, Illinois,

March 29, 1881.

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 21

A VAIilTABtiE KDIBLE MOIiliUSK OF THE ^VEST €OAST.
By .IOHI\' A. RYDKR.

The following extract from a list of shells sent with some specimens
to Mr. George W. Tryon, jr., the Conservator of the Conchological Sec-
tion of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, by Mr. Henry
Hemphill, appears to me to he of importance as a contribution to eco-
nomical science, and with Mr. Tryon's permission I am allowed to make
use of it for liublicatiou.

" Ghjcimeris generosa. Olympia, Washington Territory.

" I send you a fine large specimen of this species. Its flesh is, I think,
the most delicious of any bivalve I have ever eaten, not excepting the
best oysters.

''When first dug and laid upon its back, it resembles a fat plump
duck. The edges of the shell do not meet, but are separated by a breast
of flesh [the greatly thickened mantle] abont three inches wide, one
inch thick, and about a foot long, including about half of its siphon.
This portion is cut into thin slices, rolled in meal, and fried. It is ex-
ceedingly tender, juicy and sweet, and about the consistency of scram-
bled eggs, which it resembles very much in taste. The boys at Olym-
pia caD them '■'■ Geoducks"; they dig them on a certain sand bar at ex-
treme low tide, and sell them to a merchant who ships them to Portland,
Oreg., where they readily sell at fair prices. The boys inform me that
the Indians on the Sound call them Quenux, and dry them for food with
the other clams."

To give the reader some idea of the animal, let him suppose that he
has before him a huge soft-shelled clam, with a very thick mantle, and
a very stout siphon i^rojecting from between the valves. From the habit
■of the animal it is clear that its propagation is eflected in very much
the same way as our own clam, and that the fiy burrows into the sand
and keeps the oi)en end of the siphon projecting just above the surface.

The same methods of propagation would apply to both species. Arti-
Hcial impregnation, which has been accomplished by the writer in the
€ase of the clam, could no doubt be eflected in this case. Then, with
the proper incubator or hatching-box, provided with a bibulous mem-
brane interposed before the outlet, the water could flow through and
•out, without losing the eggs; shallow pans of sand could also be pro
Tided at the bottom of the box for the young to bury themselves in,
just as has already been proposed in the case of the clam. This is a
subject which merits the attention of all interested in keeping up the
j)roductiveness and richness of our American shell fisheries.

22 BULLETIN OL' THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

PREMMIIVARV NOTICE OF THE .IIORE IMPORTANT SCIENTIFIC
RESUI>TS ORTAIi\CD FROM A STUDY OF THE E.TIRRVOLOOV OP
FISHES.

By J. A. K¥I>JBR.

At the last meeting of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadel-
phia (April 10), Mr. Ryder remarked that, as a result of his studies
with the United States Fish Commission on the development of the
bony or Teleostean fishes, he had learned that they differ in their
mode of development from all other groups of vertebrates and fish-like
animals, except the sturgeons, in having a cavity, the segmentation cav-
ity, which persists and ultimately extends around the entire yelk as a
paravitelline space between the epiblast and hypoblast layers of the
embryo ; this cavity in these fishes not being evanescent, as it appears
to be in the embryos of the other sub-classes. The paravitelline space
does not wholly disappear in the young fish until as much as two weeks
after it leaves the egg. The segmentation cavity probably does not
l)ersist as long in fish embryos with a vitelline system of vessels as in
the pike and stickleback for example.

An annulus or thickened ring of cells all round the edge of the blas-
toderm, continuous at one point with the tail of. the embryo, limits the
cavity alluded to above ; the ring of cells the speaker called the peri-
blastodermic annulus, and is characteristic of the embryos of true fishes
and sturgeons. This feature characterizes these types, as far as is now
known, as sharply from their relatives as does the anatomy of the
adults.

The cleavage of the germ disk in bony fishes and sturgeons is regu-
lar, which further distinguishes them from other types, but they resem-
ble the sharks in that the germ of the young fish is developed at the
edge of the disk, and not in its center as in birds and reptiles.

A vesicle appears at the tail of the embryo when the blastoderm has
covered rather more than half of the vitellus. This structure, which
has been called Kuj)fier's vesicle, has not yet been proved to be an allan-
tois, as was at first supposed, but is almost certainly a result of the in-
vagination of the gastrula mouth or blastopore at the tail. The canal
passing from it may be called Kupffer's canal, and opens on the dorsal
face of the embryo. It may be continuous with the medullary canal.

The true nature of the gastruLi was pointed out on homological
grounds. The true gastrula of Teleosts appears to originate as an in-
vagination at the tail of the embryo, represented by Kupfier's canal,
essentially the same as in AmpMoxus, and is not homologous with the
gastrula regarded as such by Haeckel.

The paired fins originate from lateral folds, and the first skeletal ele-
ments of the breast tins in the cod are a pair of curved cartilaginous

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 23

arcs or rods which are not disposed radially, butjconceutrically to the
base of the flu. These folds appear so far back on the embryo that their
genetic relation to the gill arches appears imi^robable. The fin is dis-
placed forwards with the growth of the young fish, and its base rotates
through an angle of ninety degrees in acquiring the upright position.
Philadelphia, April 20, 1881.

REARIiVO OF CAI.IFORIVIA MOUNTAIIV TROUT (SAliITIO IRIDEtJS).

By SETH €}BE£]\.

(Extract from a letter to Prof. S. F. Baird, May 3, 1881. )

I have 220 six-year old California mountain trout, some of them weigh-
ing 3 pounds, and 10,000 three-year old that we are taking the spawn
from now. One day last week we took 88,000 spawn. We shall have
next year 30,000 more three years old. We have orders for all we shall
take this year. But next year we shall have many millions. They are
a hardy game fish. They spawn in the spring, and hatch in streams a
much larger i)ercentage than our trout. They will live in any streams
that our trout will, and in many warmer streams that our trout will not
live in. This is the fourth season that we have taken the spawn, and
every year a good many have hatched in our spawning-races. We never
saw one of our trout or salmon-trout hatched in the races. Seven years
ago I got 300 of their eggs ; we hatched and raised 275; when they were
three years old we took 64,000 eggs and raised 10,000 for breeders. The
next year we had 260 of the old stock, and took 90,000, and raised 30,000
for breeders and distributed the rest. Last year we had 220 of the old
stock; we took 80,000 eggs and are raising 12,000.

SAIiMOIV CAUOHT IIV GE:VESEE RIVER, IVE^V VORK.
By SETH OREEIV.

New York State Fishery Commission,

Office of the Superintendent,

Rochester, N. Y., 2Iay 3, 1881.
* * * : Last week five salmon were caught in the Genesee River,
weighing from 3 to 10 pounds. They were caught in small scoop-nets.
The falls are seven miles from Lake Ontario. They are 87 feet in per-
pendicular height. Eighty rods above is another fall of 90 feet. Then
the river, 90 miles to its head in the Allegheny Mountains, is a clear
stream for 40 miles. Then it comes on large flats with clay banks,
and becomes very roily during floods. The young salmon were put
in the tributaries above the falls. They have gone over the falls and

24 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

come back to them a^ain tliinkiug they could get back to the streams
to spawn where they spent their chiklhood days, but the leaps are too
much for them. There never were any salmon caught in the Genesee
before last year. I have fished the river for fifty years. I do not know
whether they were California or Kennebec salmon; I did not see them.
The fishermen think we do not want them caught, and have kept shy of
me. I have spent some days on the river since to let them know that
we did want them caught in the spring of the year, and to let me know
if they catch any more.

NOTES OIV THE DEVEI^OPMENT, SPIIVIVIIVCJ HABITS, AND STRUC-
TURE OF THE FOUR-SPIIVEO STICKI^ERAC'K, APEr.TES QUADRA-

cus.

BY JOHI¥ A. RYDER.

Nests and ova of this species were recently brought to me for investi-
gation by Mr. W. P. Seal, who obtained them in the ditches along the
Delaware, below Philadelphia. More recently (April 27), the same gen-
tleman had the kindness to bring me a pair of adults about to spawn,
the male very industriously completing the nest under my observation
in an aquarium extemi)orized for the purj)ose.

The early stages of development I did not witness, as the first lot of
eggs had the blastoderm already formed, and inclosing tbe vitellus, and
those laid by the pair in confinement were unluckily not impregnated.
The egg-membrane is a true zona radiata, being perforated by numerous
pore canals, and is covered by an adhesive material, which aggluti-
nates the eggs together into a mass to the number of 15 to 20, the number
laid at one time. The ova sink to the bottom, and must be taken charge
of by the male, as the female after having ridden herself of them takes
no farther interest in their welfare. They measure one-twelfth of an
inch in diameter, and are of an amber color. I was not able to discover
a micropyle, but believe that one exists, nevertheless ; at one pole of the
egg a large number of button-shaped appendages are attached to the
surface of the egg-membrane by means of i^edicels, and it is in the midst
of these that the micropyle is found in the European species, Gaster-
osteus leiurus, according to Ransom.

Kot having witnessed the early stages of development, I will only
describe the structure of the ovum. There is no germinal disk developed
when the egg first leaves the ovary, and the germinal layer is uniformly
distributed as a thin uniform granular envelope, inclosing the clearer
vitelline i^rotoplasm, which itself incloses a number of very refringent
oil spheres of very variable size. Later, it appears that a germinal disk
is developed without the influence of impregnation.

The formation of the. segmentation cavity I have not witnessed, but
I have a belief that it is present, inasmuch as there is a space developed

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 25

ou either side of the embryo and in front of the head, which answers to
it. It is, however, greatly obscured afterwards, if not obliterated at a
comparatively early period, by the remarkable way in which the blood
vascular system of the embryo is formed.

On the fourth or fifth day after impregnation, the primary divisions
of the brain are marked off, one of the most striking characters being
the extraordinary dimensions of the cerebral vesicles, the walls of the
brain cavity being thinner proportionately than I have ever found them
in other forms. The optic cups also differ in their structure from those
found in other fishes, in that there is a great space between the floor
of the cup and the lens, the origin of which from an indui^lication of the
epiblast may be very readily traced. Immediately behind the auditory
vesicles, and shortly after their invagination, the rudiments of the breast
fins appear as a pair of longitudinal folds. These therefore origmate
closer to the branchial arches than those of any other species studied by
me. As thej' often are found to originate on either side of the embryo
above the posterior end of the yelk-sack, and near a vertical from the
point where the vent appears. This latter is their mode of development
in the cases of the young of the moon-fish [ParepMppus) and the Spanish
mackerel {Gyhium maculatum). In the stickleback, however, there is
an extraordinary acceleration in the develoj^ment of the breast fin, so
much so that by the time the young fish leaves the egg, the breast
fins are as greatly developed as in a mackerel four days old. The pig-
mentation of the young stickleback is also accomplished at a very
early period, so rapidly, indeed, that it soon becomes impossible to see
the viscera through the mantle of pigment cells. There is another com-
plication which needs mentioning here, and that is the fact that a second
kind of brown i)igment cell, much larger than the black ones api^ears
on the skin before the young slips out of the egg. These brown cells
blotch the embryo on the sides and back somewhat symmetrically, and
foreshadow the style of pigmentation of the adult.

The heart appears about the fourth day as a heap of mesoblast cells
just l>elow and behind the head, and is at first a simple spherical sinus.
It does not begin to contract vigorously until the seventh day, when its
pulsations are nearly if not quite 100 per minute. Its venous end rap-
idly elongates until it extends fully the diameter of the body beyond
the right side of the embryo, a large pericardial space being developed
below the head at this point for its lodgment, which space dips down
deep into the amber-colored vitellus. It keeps contracting from this
time onwards, but there are as yet no blood corpuscles. A large space
now appears on the right side of the embryo and underneath the latter.
This we may consider a venous sinus or channel of indefinite outline.
The floor of this space is, as far as I have been able to convince myself,
formed of the hypoblast from which knobbed cells project uj) wards,
which appear to be budding off portions of themselves which will be-
come blood corpuscles. Now follow amoeboid contractions of the yelk

26 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

by means of which it ai^pears that this sinus is pushed out more to the
right and subdivided into minor channels, the corpuscular contents of
which flow towards the heart, pouring their contents into i' s venous
end. At 'lirst ic can scarcely be said that there is a circulation ; the cor-
puscles appear and the pulsation or pumping action of the heart causes
an oscillation or swaying back and forth of these corpuscles. As soon
as the aortic channel underneath the chorda dorsalis is broken through
the blood commences to j)our through the sinus from the tail end head-
wards, as the cycle is now complete. The cardinal vein is formed about
the same time. From it the feeders of the sinus, now the vitelline ves-
sels, are soon developed and they now spread out over the yelk as nar-
row channels, becoming more and more numerous. They at first spread
out over the aboral pole of the yelk, and a great common venous chan-
nel begins on the left side of the embryo and goes round to the right
side over the yelk like a girdle, to feed the heart. Into this equatorial
vascular girdle the blood pours from the hemi-meridioual, aboral chan-
nels. This asymmetrical or right-hand side channel is gradually pushed
forward until it encircles the head below and in^frout of the point where
the mouth will ajjpear. The yelk is now becoming less in bulk, and
finally the vessels arrange themselves so that the main venous channel
lies in the middle line, while the feeders which get their supply from
under the body of the embryo trend outwards and somewhat back-
wards, but as they turn to traverse the lower face of the yelk they one
and all trend forward to converge and join the great venous channel.

The above arrangement may be described as a difluse omphalomeseraic
system, and differs from that of Zoarces described by Eathke, in being
asymmetrical, and from that of the pike as described by Truman, in the
disposition of the vessels, their more meridional course, and in their
being fed from the under side of the body in a diffuse manner. It
differs widely from that of birds and reptiles and sharks in there not
being any differentiation of venous and arterial trunks over the blasto-
derm. Also from the system described by Yogt in Coregonus pakm, in
that the latter is comparatively rudimentary, while as compared with
the cod, smelt, moon-fish, and Spanish mackerel, there is the broadest
and most fundamental difference of all, in that in every one of the latter
there is nothing whatever which can be considered as representing an
omphalomeseraic or vitelline system of vessels.

Gensch* has lately studied the development of the blood in Zoarces
and Esox by means of sections, and has reached the conclusion that the
blood corpuscles in these forms are developed by budding oft' from the
hyi^oblast as it has appeared to me in the case of the stickleback. This
announcement at first appeared almost incredible to the writer, but upon
investigating the form above described it appeared perfectly reasonable,
but it must be borne in mind that there are no less than four or five dis-

*Die Blutbildung auf dem Dottersack bei Knoclienfisclien. Arcli. fiir Mik. Anat.,
xis, pp. 144-136.

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 27

tiuct hypotheses as to the origin of the blood in embryos, besides this
one, so that the matter cannot be considered as settled. In all cases
j where there was no vitelline circnlation I have not been able to arrive.
' at a satisfactory conclusion in regard to the manner in which the matter in
the yelk sack was absorbed; whether by transudation, amoeboid migra-
tion, or gemmation, and it therefore still remains an unsettled problem.
It will not, it appears to me, satisfy the facts in the case, that because
the blood originates by gemmation from the hypoblast in those cases
where there is a vitelline circulation, it should so originate where such
a circulation is absent. The corpuscles of the stickleback are at first
irregular and amoeboid in outline, and do not acquire their oval shape
for some time, or till about the tenth or twelfth day, when the young fish
is ready to leave the egg, which is strong evidence in confirmation of
Geusch's view as to the manner of origin of the blood of types with a
vitelline or omphalomeseraic circulation. In other forms it has always
appeared to me that there was strong ground for believiug that the
blood had its origin, in part at least, in the lacunjB which make their ap-
pearance in the mesoblast of the body late in embryonic life.

The heart retains its horizontal position in the stickleback for a longer
time than in any other form which I have studied, and is an instance of
what Professor Cope would call retardation in the development of a
part; indeed, the comparative histories of the several si^ecies investi-
gated by the writer afford most beautiful illustrations of both i^rinciples
enunciated by the learned biologist just referred to, namely, accelera-
tion and retardation of development, both synchronous and heterochro-
nous. This long retention of an embryonic character is, however, to be
considered as caused to some extent by the development of an omphal-
omeseraic system, and as in some degree dependent upon the correlative
interdependence of parts serving a common purpose.

Kupfier's vesicle was found to be present, and at one time I believed
that it became the allantoid vesicle, but owing to the opacity of the eggs
I failed to trace it satisfactorily to myself. The allantoid, however, occu-
pies the usual position, and is large and inclosed by a proper cellular wall.
The course of the intestine when the embryo is nearly ready to hatch is
marked by a greenish color. The blood very soon becomes reddish in
color before the fish leaves the egg, a character which it has in common
with no other form studied by me, except perhaps the sculpin. In all
other cases investigated by me, the blood is developed after the embryos
leave the egg. There is also a well-developed system of vascular loops
existing in the natatory folds along the back and belly before the fish
is ready to leave the egg, while the branchial vessels, arches, and oper-
cula are already in an advanced condition at this period, all of which
are accelerated conditions of development as compared with other forms.

When the embryo leaves the egg there are already lateral sensory
organs developed on the skin. If the young fish is allowed to assume
its normal position in a cell, and the microscope is applied, looking down

28 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

past the sides of the body from above, certain thickeuings of the epiblast or
skiu layer will be noticed. These thickenings are surmounted by trans-
parent cells which project freely for a little distance from the general
level of the surface. The cells to the number of ten or twelve are some-
what separated from each other, and have blunt truncated tips which
are not surmounted with sensory hairs or filaments. As compared with
the similar structures in the young cod, which have sensory hairs sur-
mounting them, they differ in having the i^eculiar, somewhat separated
truncated transparent cells clothing their surface externally, while in
the former nothing is seen from above but a smooth rounded elevation.

Spinning habits and structure of the male. — The male binds the nest
together by means of a compound thread which he spins from a pore or
pores behind the vent, while he uses his bobbin-shaped body to insin-
uate himself through the interstices through which he carries his thread
with wliich he binds a few stalks of Anacharis or other water- weeds
together, bringing in his mouth every now and then a contribution of
some sort in the shape of a bit of a dead plant or other object, which he
binds into the little cratUe iu which the young are to be hatched. The
thread is spun fitfully, not continuously. He will go round and round
the nest for iDcrhaps a dozen times, when he will rest awhile and begin
again, or turn suddenly round and force his snout into its top with a
vigorous, plunging motion as if to get it into the proper shape. Its
shape is somewhat conical before completion, an oi^ening remaining at
the top through which it is suj^posed he introduces the eggs. The thread
is wound round and round the nest in a horizontal direction in the case
we are describing, and if this thread is placed under the microscope
when freshly spun, it is found to be composed of ver.y thin transparent
fibers to the number of six or eight ; where they are broken off they
have attenuated tapering ends as though the material of which they
were made had been exhausted when the spinning ceased. Very soon
after the thread is spun jjarticles of dirt adhere to it and render it diifi-
cult to interpret its character. I have seen the thread being drawn out
from the abdomen repeatedly, but not from the vent ; it appeared to me
more probable that it came from the openings of a special spinniijg
gland. Its glass-like transparency shows that it is not made uj) of in-
gested food, the particles which would exhibit themselves were that the
case. The nest measures half an inch in height and three-eighths in
diameter.

Upon opening the male I find a large vesicle filled with a clear secre-
tion which coagulates into threads upon contact with water. This vesicle
appears to open directly in front of the vent, separately from the latter.
It measures one-fifth inch in length and an eighth iu diameter. As soon
as it is ruptured it loses its transparency, and whatever secretion escapes
becomes whitish after being in contact with water for a short time.
This has the same tough, elastic qualities as when spun by the animal
itself, and is also composed of numerous fibers, as when a portion is taken

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 29

which has been recently spun npon the nest. The nature of the open-
ing was not learned with precision as I possessed only a single specimen.
Tlie vesicle lies to the right side of the intestine, and there is very little
doubt but that it opens in front of the anus. The testes are two ovoid
glands, the ducts ot which unite into a common canal, both glands and
ducts being covered with black pigment cells; they measure something
less than an eighth of an inch. As to the origin of the secretion I have
no suggestion to make, but there are certain glandular structures lying
close by, the significance of which I was at a loss to understand.

This spinning habit of Apeltes was first noticed by my friend Mr. Seal,
who has watched the breeding and nursing habits of these interesting
fishes very closely, and it is my hope that I may some time be able to
deal more at length with this part of the subject with the help of his
notes and beautiful sketches.

Philadelphia, April 29, 1881.

A CAI.l, FOR CARP FR07I NEVADA.
BY I. D. PASCO.

This country is the most God-forsaken country in the world — a min-
ing camp (silver), and the water small streams from the mountains. The
nearest fish are in the Reese Eiver, 30 miles distant. Eeese Eiver would
not be called a creek in Pennsylvania; it would be a brook. When I tell
you that last winter trout came from Truckee and Walker Rivers em-
balmed in snow and ice, and sold for 37i cents per pound, you will see
that we have reason to be anxious about the matter. The big thing is
to get a good start (to get the fish), get them to breeding and we wiU
supply and stock the country. I would give 15 for a pair that are big
enough to spawn now. Our waters teem with insect life but not a fish,
and I know that fish would live in them although our springs are all
warm, and some boiling hot. The water in the streams from the mount-
ain, consisting of snow water, sinks sooner or later. I have as a jilace
to begin, with a pond — an old channel of this stream (Meadow Creek) 16
feet wide, 40 rods long, and 2 feet deep, of i3ure water. I will give you
a descrii)tion of a place Mrs. Hathaway, a widow, owns : There are as
many as twenty springs rising in a half circle and running a stream
about 3 miles, a good step across the stream ; there are fish that never
get longer than 3 inches, too small for use. How they ever got there is
unknown, for the water does not connect with any place. Here a
3-foot dam, 50 yards long, would cover 50 acres. Give us the fish, and
we will build reservoirs to hold the snow water, and use for irrigation
and fish ponds. The two will work well together. I cultivate the water
cress for sale in Belmont; it does well, but the algce (frog spittle) is a
great bother in the cress beds. Here are two articles that the cari)
would eat; and I believe in the warm springs they would not in the
winter be dormant in the mud, but grow all winter.

30 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION,

I am tlie first man that broached the fish business, but rest assured
that all having streams want them. Once fairly established in the
country we will sell to one another, because any person will be able to
pay a higher price for breeding than for eating. If necessary we will
meet the thing with cash, according to our wants and means.

Now, if possible, do not neglect us. We are all Uncle Sam's boys,
and will appreciate the fish beyond any other section, and for the very
reason that they will be a luxury for our own tables and nothing will
sell better. It cannot be over done. Our greatest obstacle would lie
in the Indians ; a mean, stupid pack, that only think of stealing as a
virtue ; but once fairly started we can manage them.

The best route would be the Pacific Eailroad to Battle Mountain, then
a narrow gauge to Austin, and from Austain to Belmont 68 miles. You
will find applicants at Austin, and on the road from Austin to Belmont.
If you can send spawn by express or mail, it would be the best way.
We have a stage three times a week from Austin.

Last season I persuaded the man above me on my stream not to go
to Eeese Eiver after trout, because I hoped sooner or later to get carp,
and I did not want trout in the stream to eat the young. I repeat,
stock us at once if possible. Eest assured we will meet you with all
assistance in our power, and appreciate your efforts beyond any other
section. I have had worms an inch and a half long in my irrigating
ditch, and could gather them by the handful.
Tours truly,

I. D, PASCO,
Belmont, Nye County, Nevada.

THE €ARAIVGOID FISHES OF THE CIVITED STATES— POMPANOES,

CREVAr,t,ES. AMBER-FISH, Etc,

By O. BROWIV OOODE.

The members of the family Carangidw are distinguished chiefly from
the mackerels, to which they are closely allied, by the absence of flnlets
and by the fact that they have uniformly but 24 vertebrre, 10 abdominal
and 14 caudal, while the mackerels have uniformly more, both abdomi-
nal and caudal. They are carnivorous fishes, abounding everywhere in
temperate and tropical seas. On our own eastern coast there are at least
2.5 species, all of them eatable but none except the Pompanoes of much
importance ; on the California coast there are two or three species of
this family of small commercial importance.

The Blunt-nosed Shiner.

{Argyriosus setipinnis. )

This fish, known on some parts of the coast as the "Horse-fish," in
North Carolina as the "Moon-fish" or "Sun-fish," and in Cuba by the

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 31

name "Jorobado," was called by Dekaj^ "Blunt-nosed Shiner," and
since this name, sometimes varied to "Pug-nosed Shiner," is in common
use in New York market and in iTarragansett Bay, while the other
names are shared by other species similar and dissimilar, it seems the
most suitable for general adoption. The fish is found everywhere
throughout the West Indies as well as in Korthern Brazil and in the
Gulf of Guinea, but has not been found in Europe, nor, as yet, has it
been recorded from the Gulf of Mexico. In Eastern Florida it is not
very unusual, being frequently taken in the lower Saint John's and
sometimes driven up as far as Jacksonville by easterly storms. Here and
in the Indian River it is known as the " Moon-fish." It is a frequent
summer visitor all along the coast as far north as Wood's Holl, Massa-
chusetts, where it has a peculiar name, the people there calling it the
"Hump-backed Butter-fish." The species attains the length of 10 or 12
inches and is esteemed an excellent article of food. Considerable num-
bers are brought yearly to Xew York, but elsewhere it rarely appears
in the markets. Young, from 3 inches in length upwards, are found,
but we have no definite knowledge as to its breeding habits.

The Silver Moon-fish.

{Selene argentea.)

The Silver Moon-fish, which much resembles the one just described,
is often spoken of under the same names, and is not likely to be dis-
tinguished from it by casual observers. On the Carolina coast, accord-
ing to Mr. Earll, it bears the expressive name of " Look-down." It oc-
curs sparingly on our coast as far north as Wood's Holl, and is found
in the West Indies, in Brazil, and in the Gulf of Mexico. Its body is
thinner, and it is consequently less desirable for food.

The Dollae-fish.

[Argyriosus vomer.)

This species, which has by many authors been considered to be the
young of the Silver Moon-fish, is a small fish quite abundant in our
waters, frequently taken in Massachusetts Bay, and, in one or two in-
stances, as far north as Halifax, Xova Scotia. Its range coincides closely
with that of the species last mentioned. Its body is so thin that it can
be dried in the sun without the use of any preservatives, retaining its
shape and color. It is consequently of no importance as a food-fish.

The Eound Robins.

[Decapteriis 'punctatus and D. macarellus.)

The Round Robin, Decapterus punctatus, or, as it is called at Pensacola,
the " Cigar-fish," occurs in the Bermudas, where it is an important food-

32 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

fish ; it is found also in the West Indies and along the coast of the United
States north as far as Wood's Holl.

A closely related species, Decapterus macareUus, is found also in the
West Indies and along the eastern coast of the United States. Accord-
ing to Stearns, individuals of this species are rather rare in the northern
part of the Gulf, but more common along the South Florida coast. They
live in shallow water and in harbors, usually moving about in small
schools. At Key West they are caught in seines and are eaten.

The Jurel.

{Paratractus pisquetiis.)

This fish, known about Peusacola as the "Jurel," "Cojinua," and
"Hard-tail," along the Florida coast as "Jack-fish" and "Ski[)jack," in
the Bermudas as the "Jack" or "Buffalo Jack," in South Carolina as
the "Horse Crevalle," at Fort Macon as the "Horse Mackerel," about
New York and on the coast of New Jersey as the "Yellow Mackerel," is
found in the Western Atlantic from Brazil, Cuba, and Hayti, to Hali-
fax, Nova Scotia, where specimens were secured by the United States
Fish Commission in 1877. It is one of the commonest summer visi-
tants of the West India fauna along the whole coast of Southern New
England and the Middle States, and is especially abundant in the Gulf
of Mexico, and is one of the commonest fishes in the Bermudas. This
fish is occasionally brought to the New York market; but is of no
special importance as an article of food north of the Gulf of Mexico.
Concerning its habits in those waters, Mr. Stearns has contributed a
very interesting series of notes. His observations are especially in-
structive since nothing has previously been known of its life history.

"It is extensively abundant everywhere on the Gulf coast of Florida,
Alabama, and Mississippi. At Pensacola it is one of the important
fishes of trade and is highly prized for food. It is one of the class of
migratory fishes of this coast, like the Parapano, Mullet, Spanish Mack-
erel, and Eedfish, liaving certain seasons for appearing and disappear-
ing on the coast and also has habits during these seasons that are
l^eculiar to tliemselves or their class. It appears on the coast in April
in small scliools that swim in shoal water near the beach during pleas-
ant weather, when there is little or no surf, in 8 or 10 feet of water, and
in stormy weather some little distance from the breakers. Their move-
ment is from the eastward to the westward. As they seldom swim at
the surface their movements can be watched only when in shoal water.
The schools 'running' in April and first of May are usually smaller
than those of a few weeks later; but the individuals of the first are
somewhat larger. The mass or largest ' run' comes in May, and it is on
the arrival of these that schools are first seen coming in the inlets.

"A noticeable peculiarity of the Hard-tail comj)ared with some other
common migratory fishes, is that the first schools do not stay about the

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 33

mouths of an inlet and along the beach weeks before coming inside as
those of the latter do, but continue their westward movement without
seeming to stop to feed or play until the time has come for a general
movement towards the bays. In this way they must be distributed
along tlie coast with no unequal accumulation at any one point. When
once inside, the numerous schools break up into smaller ones of a dozen
or two fish, which are found in all parts of the bay during the summer.
On their arrival the larger fish contain spawn, which in July and Au-
gust becomes quite full, after which none are seen but the young fish
of about 10 inches in length, until there is a general movement towards
the sea. It is believed that the adult fish spawn in the bays, but the
only evidence to support that belief is that they come inside with spawn,
go away without it, and that very young fish are found there. In Oc-
tober and November small Hard-tails are caught in Santa Eosa Sound
measuring 5 and 6 inches in length.

"The smallest of the spring run are 9 or 10 inches long. Adult fish
measure 12, 11, and 15 inches in length, very rarely more than the last.
During the months of October and November Hard-tails leave the bays
formed in small schools, and swimming below the surface in deep water.
The only time that they can then be seen is when they cross the 'bars'
at the inlet or sandy shoals in the bay. A few stragglers remain iu
Pensacola Bay and Santa Rosa Sound all winter, which are taken now
and then with hook and line. I have found them in abundance iu win-
ter on the South Florida coast, where, owing to less variable conditions
of the water, their habits are decidedly different. The Hard-tail is a
most voracious fish, waging active war upon the schools of small fish.
Its movements are rapid, and sometimes in its eagerness it will jumj)
high out of the water. It has its enemies also, for I have seen whole
schools driven ashore by sharks and porpoises; a great many are de-
stroyed in this way. Hard-tails are caught for the market in seines."

The Goggler.
( Carangus crumeuopthalmus.)

This fish, called in the Bermudas, where it is of some importance as
a food-fish, the "Goggler," or "Goggle-eyed Jack," and in Cuba the
"Cicharra," occurs in the West Indies and along the Atlantic coast of
the United States north to the Vineyard Sound. It is also found at
Mauritius, and in the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Oceans, the Red Sea,
and off the coast of Guinea, while, as has been remarked, it is abundant
in the Bermudas. Its large, protruding eyes are very noticeable fea-
tures, and the Bermuda name seems appropriate for adoption, since the
fish has with us never received a distinctive name. In form it some-
what resembles the species last discussed, with which, also, it is prob-
ably often confused.

Stearns speaks of a fish, common at Key West, which is known as
the "Horse-eyed Jack," and this may prove to be the same species.
Bull. U. S. F. C., 81 3

34 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

The Cavally.
{Carangiis hippos.)

The Cavally of the Gulf of Mexico and Eastern Florida — the Horse-
crevalle of South Carolina — occurs abundantly on our southern coast,
and has been recorded by Professor Poey from Cuba, and by Cope from
St. Christopher and St. Croix. It has been so confused with other
species of the same genus that at present it is impossible to state its
distribution throughout the West Indies. The species was originally
described from specimens sent from South Carolina by Garden to Lin-
naeus. The name of this fish is usually written and printed " Crevalle,"
but the form in common use among the fishermen of the South, Cavally,
is much nearer to the original Spanish name, Cavalha, or Cavalla, mean-
ing "horse." The name as used in South Carolina is a curious redu-
plication, being a combination of the English and Spanish names for
"horse." It should be carefully remembered that in South Carolina the
name Crevalle is most generally applied to quite another fish, the Pom-
pano.

The Cavally, as it seems most aj^propriate to call Carangus hippos.,
though in individual cases occurring as far north as Cape Cod, and even,
in one instance, at Lynn, Mass., is not commonly known in the United
States north of Florida. Storer remarks : "This fish is so seldom seen
in the waters of South Carolina that we are unacquainted with its
habits."

I observed a specimen in the Jacksonville market in April, 1874.
Concerning the Cavally of Southern Florida, which is either this or a
closely allied species, Mr. H. S. Williams remarks :

"In the Indian Eiver this is one of the best of the larger varieties.
Its season is from the 1st of May to November. It ranges in weight
from three to twenty pounds, being larger and more numerous to the
southward toward the Mosquito Inlet. The south end of Merritt's
Island and the inlets opposite old Fort C apron seem to be a sort of
headquarters for the Cavalli. When in pursuit of prey they are very
ravenous, and move with the rapidity of lightning. They readily take
a troll either with bait or rag. The favorite mode of capturing them, as
well as all other large fish that feed in shallow water or near the shore,
is with a rifle. The high rocky shores afford an excellent opportunity
for this sport, though the rapid movements of the fish render them very
difiicult targets."

Mr. Stearns writes: "The Crevalle is common on the Gulf coast. In
West Florida it ai)pears in May and remains until late in the fall. Is
equallj' abundant in the bays and at sea. In the bays it is noticeable
from the manner in which it preys upon fish smaller than itself, the Gulf
Menhaden and Mullet being the most common victims. On arrival it
contains spawn, which it probably deposits in the salt-water bayous, for
in the fall schools of young are seen coming out of those places on their

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 35

way to the sea. These young are tlien of about one pound weight, ap-
pearing to the casual observer like Pampano, and I am told that they
equal it for edible purposes. They are caught accidentally by seines and
trolling-lines. Large ones are not considered choice food, the flesh being
dark and almost tasteless. The average weight is twelve pounds ; oc-
casionally they attain the size of twenty pounds."

The Golden Mackerel.

( Carangus cli rysos.)

The Golden Mackerel, called "Yellow Mackerel" at Xew York, and
" Sun-fish," in Xorth Carolina, is said to be somewhat abundant in Beau-
fort Harbor. It has also been obtained at Wood's Holl, Mass. It has
been confused with the other related forms and but little is known of
it. The species called by Girard Carangus esculentus, and identified by
Gill with this species, was found on the coast of Texas. I obtained a
single specimen in the Saint John's Eiver in the spring of 1878.

The Cuba Jurel.

{Carangus fallax.)

The occurrence of this species on our coast is vouched for only by a
drawing, made by Mr. J. H. Eichard, of a fish taken in South Carolina.
Upon this drawing Holbrook founded his species C. Ricliardii. Caran-
gus fallax occurs at various points in the West Indies, and it would be
by no means imi^ossible that a straggler should have found its way to
Charleston. According to Professor Poey this fish has been prohibited
fiom sale in Cuba from time immemorial, and Avith good reason, since
many disastrous cases have followed its use as food.

The Scad.

( Trachurus Phimierianns.)

The Scad, known in Kew England as the Horse Mackerel, appears to
occur in all temperate and tropical waters. Its distribution is given by
Giinther as extending "from the coasts of the temperate parts of Eu-
rope, along the coasts of Africa, round the Cape of Good Hope, into
the East Indian seas, to the coasts of aSTew Zealand and West America."

In Europe the Scad ranges north to the Drontjem's Fjord, latitude
65°, occurring also in abundance in the Mediterranean. On the coast
of Holland it is known as the "Marse Banker" or "Hors." It is inter-
esting to American ichthyologists, since the similarity of its habits to
those of the Menhaden, so important in our waters, caused the latter
fish to be called, among the early Dutch colonists of Xew York, by the
same name. European writers describe them as occurring uj)on those
coasts in schools of immense numbers, and it would seem that, although

36 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

tbeir manuer of swimming resembles that of the Menhaden, in their
other habits they more closely resemble our own Bluefish. They are
considered to be food-fishes of fair quality, and attain the length of
about 12 inches. They are supposed to spawn about the same time as
the Mackerel. Only a single specimen of this species has ever been
taken on the east coast of the United States, this having been obtained
by the Fish Commission from Southern New England in 1878. In Cali-
fornia, according to Jordan, it is an abundant species, and is there com-
monly known as the Horse Mackerel. He remarks :

" It reaches a length of about a foot and a weight of less than a pound.
It ranges from Monterey southward, appearing in the summer, remain-
ing in the spawning season, and disappearing before December. It ar-
rives at Santa Barbara in July and at Monterey in August. In late
summer it is exceedingly abundant. It forms part of the food of larger
fishes, and great numbers are salted for bait. As a food-fish it is held
in low esteem, but whether this is due entirely to its small size we do
not know. A similar species has been described from San Diego, under
the name of Caranx hoops Grd. It is unknown to us."

The Thread-Fish.

{Blepharis crinitus.)

This fish, also known as the Shoemaker Fish, is found along our coast
from Cape Cod to the Caribbean Sea. In South America and also in
California it is of no economic importance, but on account of its strange
shape and the long thread-like apj)endages to its fins, which float behind
it to the distance of five or six times its own length, it is often brought
to the markets as a curiosity.

The Pompanoes {Trachynotus carolinus) and other species.

There are four species of Pompano in the Western Atlantic, very
similar to each other in general appearance, but easily distinguished by
differences in x)roportion and in the number of fin rays.

The commonest species, the Carolina Pompano, Trachynotus carolinus,
has the height of the body contained two to two and two-thirds times
in the total length. The length of the head, five to five and one-third
times, one of the caudal lobes four times; it has 24 to 25 rays in the sec-
ond dorsal, while the anterior rays of the true dorsal and anal fins, if
laid backward, reach to the middle of the fin.

The Round Pompano ( T. ovatus) has the height of the body contained
two to two and one-third times in the total length ; the length of the
head, five to five and one-fourth times; one of the caudal lobes, three and
a half to four times. In the second dorsal are from 18 to 21 rays, in the
second anal from 16 to 19, while in the Carolina Pompano there are 21
to 22.

The African Pompano (T. goreensis) resembles in general form the

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 37

Ronud Pampano, though somewhat more elongate, while the head is
larger, being contained four and a half times in the total length. The
anterior rays of the dorsal and anal extend beyond the middle of the
fin, if laid backward. In the number of the fin rays it corresponds most
closely with the Kouud Pompano.

The Banner Pompano ( T. glaueus) has a somewhat elongate body and
a small head. It is much thinner than either of the other species. Its
silvery sides are marked with four blackish vertical streaks ; the best
distinguishing mark is in the length of the first rays of the dorsal and
anal, which extend back nearly to the tip of the caudal fin. The name
Pompano, applied in this country- to all of these fishes, is a Spanish
word, meaning "grape leaf." The word in Western Europe is applied
to a very different fish.

The Common Pompano.

The Common, or Carolina, Pompano ( Trachynotus carolinus) occurs in
both the Atlantic and Pacific waters of the United States. On our east-
ern coast it ranges north to Cape Cod, south to Jamaica, east to the
Bermudas, and west to the Gulf of Mexico, at least as far as the mouth
of the Mississippi Eiver.

In our iSTew England and Middle States it is a summer visitor, ap-
pearing in June and July and departing in September. Although it is at
present imx)ossible to ascertain the lower limit of its temperature range,
it is probable that it corresponds very nearly to that indicated by a har-
bor temperature of 60° to 65'^.

This species, like the Round Pomjiano, was described by Linnaeus
from South Carolina, and never had been observed in any numbers north
of Cape Hatteras until the summer of 1854, when Professor Baird dis-
covered them near Great Egg Harbor. In his " Report on the Fishes of
New Jersey " he states that he had seen them taken by thousands in the
sandy coves on the outer beach of Beesley's Point. These, however,
were young fish, few of them weighing more than half a pound. In 1863
he obtained both species in Southern Massachusetts, where in subsequent
years they have been frequently caj^tured.

" My first acquaintance with the Pompano (New England)," writes
Professor Baird, "was in 1863, during a residence at Wood's Holl,
where I not unfrequently caught young ones of a few inches in length.
I was more fortunate in the summer of 1871, which I also spent at
Wood's Holl ; then the Pompano was taken occasionally, especially in
Captain Spindle's pound, and I received at different times as many as
20 or 30, weighing about IJ pounds or 2 j)ounds each. Quite a number
were caught in Buzzard's Bay and Vineyard Sound in 1872."

It is a fair question whether the Pompano has recently found its way
into northern waters, or whether its presence was unknown because
nobody had found the way to capture it. When Mitchell wrote on the

38 BULLETIN OF THE TJNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

fishes of New York in 1842 he had access to a single specimen which had
been taken off Sandy Hook about the year 1820.

The spawning-times and breeding-grounds of these fishes are not well
known.

Mr. S. C. Clarke states that in the Indian Eiver they spawn in March
in the open sea, near New Smyrna, Fla. It is supposed that those vis-
iting our northern coasts breed at a distance from the shore. The eggs,
like those of the Mackerel, being lighter than the water, float at or near
the surface. The Pampanoes may, however, be truly migratory, seek-
ing the waters near the equator in winter and following along a coast-
wise migration, north and south, in summer. They are rapid, powerful
swimmers ; their food consists of mullusks, the softer kinds of crusta-
ceans, and, probably, the young of other fishes. S. C. Clarke remarks
that they have been known to bite at a clam bait. Genio Scott remarks :
" It is mullet-mouthed ; never takes a bait except by mistake." Their
teeth are very small and are apt to disappear with age. As seen in the
New York market they rarely exceed 5 i^ounds or 6 pounds in weight.
I quote in full the observations of Mr. Stearns :

" The common Pomi^ano is abundant on the Gulf coast from the Mis-
sissippi Eiver to Key West, and, as far as I can learn, is rare beyond
this western limit until the Yucatan coast is reached, where it is com-
mon. It is considered the choicest fish of the Gulf of Mexico, and has
great commercial demand, which is fully sui)plied but a few weeks in
the year, namely, when it arrives in spring. The Pompano is a migra-
tory fish in the Pensacola region, but I think its habits on the South
Florida coast are such that it cannot properly be so classed.

"At Pensacola it comes in to the coast in spring and goes away from
it in fall, while in South Florida it is found throughout the year. In
the former section it appears on the coast in March in schools varying
in numbers of individuals from fifty to three or four thousand, which
continue to 'run' until the latter part of May, when it is supposed that
they are all inside. Their movement is from the eastward and they
swim as near to the shore as the state of the water will permit, very
seldom at the surface, so as to ripple or 'break' the water, although
sometimes while playing in shoal water they will jump into the air.

"Before any schools enter the bays certain ones will remain for days,
or even weeks, in a neighborhood, coming to the beach during the flood-
tide to feed on the shell-fish that abound there, and returning again to
deeper water on the ebb-tide. The holes or gullies in the sand along
the beach are their favorite feeding grounds on these occasions. Sharks
and porpoises ])ursue the Pompano incessantly, doubtless destroying-
many. The largest numbers come in April, and sometimes during that
month the first schools are seen entering the inlets, others following
almost every day until about June 1, when the spring 'run' is said to be
over. Every year they appear in this way at Pensacola and adjoining
bays, although there are many more some years than others. As the

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 89

abuudauce is judged by the quantity caught, I thiuk that the diifereuce
may He more iu the uumber of flshiug days (pleasant ones) than in the
real numbers of fish present. The sizes of Pompano that make uj) these
schools are large or adult fish averaging 12 or 14 inches in length, and
small fish (probably one year old) averaging 8 inches in length. The
largest Pompano that I have seen measured 19^ inches in length, and
weighed G^ ijouuds, the extremely large fish called Pomi^ano, of two or
three times that size, probably being another species. After entering
the bays the schools of Pompano break up, and the fish scatter to all
parts where the water is salt and there are good feeding-grounds. Ex-
cept single individuals that are taken now and then, nothing is seen of
Pompano until late in the fall, when they are bound seaward. In regard
to its spawning habits nothing very definite has been learned. It has
spawn half developed when it arrives and has none when it leaves the
bays. Large quantities of the fry are seen in the bays all summer,
which is some proof of its spawning inside. In June, 1878, I caught
specimens of the fry, varying in size from three-quarters of an inch to
3 inches in length. Very many schools of these sizes were also observed
in July and August, of the same and following years of 1879-80.

"The schools of fry go to sea in August and September. The older or
adult fish leave the coast in September and October in small schools,
that are only seen and caught at the inlets where they happen to cross
shoals or follow the beach. These Pomjiano of the fall are verj fat and
in every way superior to those caught iu the spring. As before men-
tioned, the Pompano is found on the South Florida coast all the year.
The sea-beach from Tampa Bay to Charlotte's Harbor seems to be its
favorite feeding-ground, owing to the quantity of shell-fish that occur
there. It does not form in large schools as in the Pensacola region, and
therefore is not taken in such large quantities by seine fishermen.

" Smacks from Mobile and Pensacola sometimes go to Tampa Bay for
them. I have been told that Pompano are caught at Key West iu con-
siderable quantities by hook and line, and I have known of a few being
taken in that manner at Pensacola. It feeds entirely upon small shell-
fish, which are crushed between the bones of its pharyngeal arch."

The Pound Pompano.

(T. ovatus.)

The Pound Pompano (T. ovatus), sometimes called the Shore Pom-
pano, is at Pensacola known by the name " Gaff- topsail," and in the
Bermudas by the name "Alewife." This fish is very often confused by
market -Tuen with the Carolina Pompano, and I have seen them sold
together under the same name in the Charleston market, just as I have
seen the young of four species of the herring family sold indiscrimi-
nately in New York.

The Pound Pompano is cosmopolitan in its distribution, occurring in

40 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

the North and South Atlantic, in various parts of the Indian Ocean,
and on the coasts of California and China. The young have been ob.
tained in the harbor of Vineyard Haven. Mass. It is probable that the
species is far more abundant in our waters than we now suppose it to
be. Stearns remarks that it is obtained occasionally at Pensacola with
the other species, but is never very common; is seen only in the spring,
and is not valued as a food-flsh. About the Bermudas they are some-
times very abundant, and in 1875 a school of them, numbering 600 or
700, was seined on the south shore of the islands. They are there con-
sidered most delicious fish.

The African Pompano.

(T. goreensis.)

This species was originally described from the island of Gorea, on the
west coast of Africa, and was observed by the writer in 1876, and in
1877 was discovered in Florida. It is the largest of the Pomiianoes.
Two or three specimens, weighing from 15 pounds to 20 pounds each,
have been sent from Florida to the I^ew York market. One of these,
taken at Jupiter Inlet, was sent by Mr. Blackford to the National Mu-
seum. In the Gulf of Mexico it is not unusual, being known at Key
West as the "Permit."

Stearns remarks :

" This fish is rather common along the lower end of the Florida Penin-
sula, specimens being caught quite often in seines at Cedar Keys and
at the Mullet fisheries of Sarasota and Charlotte's Harbor, and also at
Key West. It is said to attain a considerable size, 15 or 20 j)Ound
specimens being common. It is not a choice food-fish when so large,
and even smaller ones are comparatively drj' and tasteless. I have not
found it north or west of Cedar Keys."

The Banner Pompano.

(T. glaucus.)

This species is a member of the West Indian fauna and occasionally
occurs at the Bermudas ; it has lately been noticed on the Pacific side
of the Isthmus of Panama.

The Pilot-fish.

[Naucrates dnctor.)

The Pilot-fish, though of little or no economic importance, deserves
passing mention, as it is so frequently referred to in literature. It is
occasionally taken on our coast. Captain Atwood mentions a specimen
which was taken in a mackerel net in Provincetown Harbor in October,
1858. A whale ship had come in a few days before and he supposes
the Pilot-fish had followed it into the harbor.

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 41

" The Pilot-fish {N. ductor) is a truly pelagic flsli, known in all tropical
and temperate seas. Its name is derived from its habit of keeping com-
pany with ships and large fish, especially Sharks. It is the Pompilusof
the ancients, who describe it as pointing out the way to dubious or em-
barrassed sailors, and as announcing the vicinity of land by its sudden
disappearance. It was therefore regarded as a sacred fish. The con-
nection between the Shark and the Pilot-fish has received various inter-
j)retations, some observers having perhaps added more sentiment than
is warranted by the actual facts. It was stated that the Shark never
seized the Pilot-fish, that the latter was of great use to its big companion
in conducting it and showing it the way to its food. Dr. Meyen, in his
'Eeise um die Erde,' states : ' The Pilot swims constantly in front of the
led by the Pilot. When the Shark neared the ship the Pilot swam close
Shark; we ourselves have seen three instances in which the Shark was
to the snout or near one of the pectoral fins of the animal. Sometimes
he darted rapidly forwards or sidewards as if looking for something, and
constantly went back again to the Shark. When we threw overboard a
piece of bacon fastened on a great hook the Shark was about twenty
paces from the ship. With the quickness of lightning the Pilot came
up, smelt at the dainty, and instantly swam back again to the Shark,
swimming many times around his snout and splashing, as if to give him
exact information as to the bacon. The Shark now began to put himself
in motion, the Pilot showing him the way, and in a moment he was fast
ujion the hook.* Upon a later occasion we observed two Pilots in sed-
ulous attendance on a Blue Shark which we caught in the Chinese Sea.
It seems probable that the Pilot feeds on the Shark's excrements, keeps
his company for that purpose, and directs his operations solely from this
selfish ^^ew.' We believe that Dr. Meyen's opinion, as expressed in his
last words, is perfectly correct. The Pilot obtains a great part of his food
directly from the Shark in feeding on the parasitic crustaceans with
which Sharks and other large fish are infested, and on the smaller pieces
of flesh which are left unnoticed by the Shark when it tears its prey.
The Pilot also, being a small fish, obtains greater security when in com-
pany of a Shark, which would keep at a distance all other fishesof prey
that would be likely to prove dangerous to the Pilot. Therefore in ac-
companying the Shark the Pilot is led by the same instinct which makes
it follow a ship.

" With regard to the statement that the Pilot itself is never attacked
by the Shark, all observers agree as to its truth ; but this may be ac-
counted for in the same way as the imi)unity of the swallow from the
hawk, the Pilot-fish being too nimble for the unwieldy Shark.

" The Pilot-fish does not always leave the vessels on their approach
to land. In summer, when the temperature of the sea-water is several
degTees above the average. Pilots will follow ships to the south coast of

*Iu this iustance one may eiltertain reasonable doubts as to the usefulness of the
Pilot to the Shark.

42 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

England into the harbor, where they are generally speedily caught.
Pilot-fish attain a length of 12 inches only. When very young their ap-
pearance differs so much from the mature fish that they have been de-
scribed as a distinct genus, Nauclerus. This fry is exceedingly common
in the open ocean, and constantly obtained in the tow-net ; therefore
the Pilot-fish retain s its pelagic habits also during the spawning season,
and some of the spawn found by voyagers floating on the surface is, with-
out doubt, derived from this species."*

The Medregal.

(Zonichthys fasciatus.)

This fish, called in Cuba the Medregal and in Bermuda the Bonito,
has been observed in South Florida and along the coasts of the Caro-
linas. It is apjiareutly exceedingly rare in the waters of the United
States. In Bermuda it attains a length of two feet or more and is highly
esteemed af a food -fish.

The Banded Eudder-fish.

{Seriola zonata.)

This siiecies, known in South Carolina by the names "Jack-fish"
and " Banded Mackerel," has been observed as far north as Salem and
Beverly, Mass. Several specimens have been taken north of Cape Cod
during the past forty years. It has also been found in South Carolina
and Georgia, though rare in that region. It is a small fish, rarely ex-
ceeding 6 or 8 inches in length, conspicuous by reason of its brilliant
and beautiful colors, and good to eat, though rarely saved by the
fishermen who accidentally capture it. It is called the Rudder-fish on
account of its resemblance to the Eudder-fish of the ocean. Naucrates
ductor.

This fish was observed in the Gulf of Mexico by Mr. Silas Stearns, who
writes :

" The Amber-fish is quite common off the West Florida coast, occur-
ring in from 10 to 30 fathoms of water, on or near the 'Snapper Banks'
throughout the year. It is a very active fish, swimming just below the
water's surface, preying upon schools of small fish. It is rather shy of
a baited hook, and but few are caught. It is a good food-fish. It at-
tains a size of 40 inches length, and 15 pounds weight. Its average
size but little more than half that."

The "Eock Salmon" of Pensacola [Seriola honariensis) is recorded
by Stearns as occasionally occurring near Pensacola in company with
the preceding species, which it resembles in habits. It is caught with
hook and line and is eaten. In his opinion, it attains a larg«er size than

* Glinther's Study of Fishes, p. 444.

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 43

the Ainber-fisli. There is a third species of Amber-fish, of which the
National Museum has received a single specimen from South Florida.
It is closely related to the fish described by Cuvier under the name Seri-
oJa Lalandii. This species also occurs on the coast of California, where,
according to Jordan, it is known under the names "Yellow- tail," "White
Salmon," and "Cavasina."

Of the "Yellow-tail" Professor Jordan says:

"It reaches a length of 4 to 5 feet, and a weight of 50 to GO pounds,
and individuals of less than 15 i^ounds weight are rarely seen. It ranges
from the tropical Pacific northward to the Santa Barbara and Corona-
dos Islands, where it is found in great abundance in the spawning sea-
son, arriving in July and departing in early fall. It spawns about Au-
gust 18. It is caught chiefly by trolling. It feeds on Squid and such
fish as the anchovy and sardine. As a fresh fish it ranks high, although
large individuals are sometimes coarse and tough. When salted and
dried it is inferior to none on the coast, ranking with the Whitefish and
Barracuda."

The Eunnee.

{Elagatis pinmdatiis. )

This West Indian fish, known at Key West as " Skipjack" or "Run-
ner," and at Pensacola as "Yellow-tail" or "Shoemaker," is, according
to Stearns, " abundant on the western and southern coasts of Florida.
At Pensacola it spawns in spring; the young fish are seen in July and
August. It is found in the bays and along the sea beaches, seeming to
prefer clear, salt water, swift currents, and sandy bottoms. It usually
moves in small schools of a dozen or two individuals. It feeds upon
small fishes and crustaceans. When pursued by larger fish it jumjjs
repeatedly from the water, very much in the same manner as the Flying-
fish, only its flights are much shorter and oftener repeated. This habit
has given it the names of "Skipjack" and "Eunner,"at Key West,
where it may be seen at almost any time. It is sometimes eaten at Key
West, and at Havana is quite an important fish in the markets, being
also exposed for sale at stands on the streets, cooked and ready for use."

The Leather-jacket.

{OlkjopUtes occidentalis.)

This fish, which is found throughout the West Indies and south as
far as Bahia, has, since 1875, been several times observed between
Florida and Newport, R. I. It is known to fishermen as the " Skii)-
jack," sharing this name with a number of other scombroid fishes which
leap from the water as they pursue theu" prey. It is one of the most
beautiful and graceful fishes in our waters, but at present is of no eco-
nomic importance.

44 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

NOTES ON ITI'CtiOUD KIVER, C'AIvIFORNIA, AND SOME OF ITS FISHES,
BASED UPON A I^ETTEB OF J. B. C'AIUPBEL.1., OF THE UNITED
STATES FISH COMITIISSION.

MoCloud Kiver, Shasta County, California, May 6, 1881.

Prof. Spencer F. Baird,

U. S. Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries, Washington, D. C. :

Sir : The Uuited States Fishery is established, one and one-half miles
from the junction of the McCloud with the Pitt, in a rough and moun-
tainous country culminating in high limestone peaks on the east. Four
miles above the fishery is the trout-rearing establishment, of which Mr.
Myron Green is superintendent. East of the trout pond is a small creek
or brook, running between limestone j)eaks. Three miles from the trout
pond, and on the west side of the river, is a small farm belonging to
Henry Mirey. One mile above Mirey's place is the home of the writer,
consisting of a nice orchard and garden on the east side of the river,
together with a beautiful creek that does not vary more than 4 degrees
during the winter, and ranges from 53 to 57 degrees during the summer.
For the next 65 or 70 miles there are neither white men nor Indians.
There is a mill branch in summer, but none in winter. The entire
country is mountainous. The river is very rapid. The temperature of
the water at the Uuited States Fisherj^, in the summer, is from 55 to 60
degrees at midday in the hottest weather. From the fishery up, the river
gets one degree colder in about every 10 or 12 miles for the distance of 65
or 70 miles. There is a large spring that breaks out in the bed of the
river, forming more than two-thirds of its volume. From there up the
water becomes very warm, from 60 to 70 degrees. About three miles
from the spring begins a series of three falls, each of which has a descent
of about 50 to 60 feet, and is about two miles from the next. Under
these falls there are a great many trout. I have caught one hundred
in less than two hours. They are smaller than those lower down, av-
eraging about one- half pound to one pound in weight. From these falls
up, the water is quite still and sluggish (with the exception of about
half a mile just above the falls, where it is very rapid) for many miles,
traversing a lava country. There are plenty of trout above, and they
are much larger than those below the falls, averaging about 8 to 10
pounds. Through seven miles of this sluggish water there are few
trout, but as the water becomes more rapid small brook trout are plen-
tiful. The river is about 130 to 140 miles in length, more or less, I
should judge, but it has never been measured. Trout inhabit the river
to the head-waters.

I will now endeavor to give you a description of some of the McCloud
Eiver fish, beginning at the mouth of the stream.

The first is known as the " rifle pike." Its color is darkish brown. It

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 45

has a small month and a com])aratively small head. The flesh is A^ery
solid, bnt rather fnll of bones ; yet the fish is considered excellent for
the table. The "rifle pike" is found in the river through the last four
miles of its course. It becomes very fat, and weighs from 2 to 5 pounds.

The second is called " whiteflsh." This splendid fish is so-called because
of its white flesh. It prefers sluggish water, although I have seen it in
rapid water about twelve miles above the mouth of the river. The
" whitefish '' has a large month and a very large head. The examples that
I have seen varied from 4 to 28 pounds in weight, but larger ones have
been caught.

The third is the "dolly varden" or " wye-dardeek-it," a beautiful
trout with golden spots on the back and sides, and with scales so small
as to be hardly perceptible to the naked eye. The mouth is big and the
head is large and not beautiful. The flesh is invariably red — a cherry
red. It weighs from 2 to 15 pounds. It frequents the river from the
junction to the spring, there being none above the spring and few near
the river mouth. If one takes hold of the " dolly varden " it slips away
nearly like an eel.

The fourth is the sucker, which inhabits the lower twelve or four-
teen miles of the river. It reaches as much as 3 to 5 pounds in weight,
averaging about 1 pound.

The fifth is the red-sided trout,, or, as it is called in New York, the rain-
bow trout. I will mention only its habits, as you have undoubtedly seen
many of them. It feeds almost entirely on the bottom of the river, but
will take a fly through March, April, and part of May, as the river is then
literally alive with insects. It also feeds on salmon eggs when the latter
begin to spawn, and on old dead salmon, at which time it becomes
very fat, and will rarely take a hook. It feeds very little during the
spawning season, which is in the winter, from January 10 to Ajiril, and
sometimes until May 1. Eainbow trout run ux> the small streams to
spawn, sometimes ; but the majority of them spawn in the main river.
They spawn invariably on gravel beds, digging a small round hole in the
gravel to correspond with their own lengths. The male accompanies
the female, and lies close to her side, and when the female deposits her
ova the male ejects his milt. They commence feeding immediately after
spawning. I have caught them weighing two and one-half pounds. I
could give you full details of their spawning, but I have not space.

The sixth is a bull-head, from 1 to 3 inches in length. It is very
destructive to salmon spawn and the little salmon while they retain the
umbilical sac.

Any time you should desire further i^articulars, send me a letter and
I will answer it with pleasure. I have been writing to Seth Green for
over two years, and have given him full i)articnlars concerning the fish
of this region and their habits.

If you want to know how the McCloud trout thrive in New York you

46 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

can apply to him, as I have supplied him with all that he has got from
that river. He took some spawn from them this season.

I omitted to state that the "dolly vardens" are very destructive to
other trout, or any kind of fish. They spawn in September and Novem-
ber. Their eggs are about one-half the size of those of the common trout.
The fish are very difScult to obtain. They will live in a small jilace where
the common trout would not. I have kept them in a pond, about 6 feet
square, for a month, where the common trout would kill themselves in a
short time. They appear to be more hardy. I have watched the salmon
and the trout during their spawning more than any other man in this part
of the country, as I have fished a great deal, and have been fishing longer
than any one who takes any interest in the matter. I came here in 1855 j
I have caught hundreds and probably thousands.

J. B. CAMPBELL.

[Note. — The species referred to in Mr. Campbell's descriptions are the
following: "Rifle Pike," Gila s^.', ^^ White&sh,^^ Ptychochilus oregonensis
(Eich.) Ag.; " Dolly Varden," Salvelimis malma (Walb.) Jor. & Gilb.;
" Sucker," Catostomus occidentalis Ay res; " Red-sided Trout," Salmo iri-
deus Gibbons; "Bull Head," Uranidea sp. — Editor.]

TBE ORIOIIV OF THE ITIEIVHADKIV INDUSTBV.

By CAPT. E. T. DEBLOIS.

[Note. — In the foUowiug article, Captain DeBlois has thrown new light upon several
long mooted questions, especially the date of the discovery of the value of menhaden
oil, the origin of meuhaden oil manufacture; the application of pressure in the
manufacture of fish oil, and the invention of the purse seine, besides placing upon
record an important series of observations upon the growth of the menhaden fishery
within the past half century. — Gr. Brown Goode.]

In 1811 two men, one by the name of Christopher Barker, and the
other John Tallman, commenced the business of making oil out of men-
haden fish, with the use of two iron pots, upon the shore, a few rods
south of what was then called the Black Point wharf, near Portsmouth,
R. I. They boiled the fish in the pots or kettles, and bailed the fish and
contents into hogsheads, putting on top the fish in the hogsheads pieces
of board with stones on top, to i)ress the fish down so that the oil would
come on top, and also in order that the oil could be skimmed oft. A
man by the name of John Hunt was the oil man who skimmed off the
oil, and put it u^) in barrels for market. It was sent to New York to
market by a house or x^eople that were doing business in Newport, R. L,
by the name of Muuroe, who were in the West India trade.

Barker & Tallman, it seems, found the oil business to be profitable,
for in 1814 they added two more pots to their business, and the same
fall two other men commenced the same business, by the name of Muu-
roe, very near Barker & Tallman's works. The business was carried on

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 47

only in the fall, as the fish were too poor in the summer. The notable
September gales of 1815, which were so very destructive on the Xew
England coast, destroyed the above works, aud washed them some 60
feet up on the land, from where they were located.

It is thought that the business did not get started again until 1818.
It seems that in 1824: Mr. Barker conceived a new idea of cooking fish,
and put his ideas into practice, by building a box 5J feet high and 6
feet wide, and 8 feet long, with a fire-place or furnace in or on one end,
and a copper pipe running from the fire furnace through the middle of
the box, by which all the smoke and fire had to pass through the box.
He usually put 60 pounds of fish in the box at a time, covering the same
with water; this was called the "Bit Barker Fish Oil Factory." It was
built on skids, and was conveyed from place to place by his oxen, using
it most of the time on his farm, which was a mile from the shore, draw-
ing the fish from the shore with his oxen. By this method he saved
the water, and put it on his land as well as the scrap, which made his
farm produce yery large crops.

The first factory that was built to cook fish by steam in wooden tanks,
as far as I know, was built by John Tallman; the second in the year
1811 on j\['Gay's Point, Portsmouth, E. I. It had eight wooden tanks,
holding 60 barrels of fish, and a flue boiler. The boiler was fed by a
force-pump worked by hand. The next year Mr, Tallman joined Mr.
George Lambert, of East Cambridge, Mass., and built a factory at the
mouth of Merrimac Eiver, Mass., and soon after Mr. Daniel Wells got
Mr. Tallman's plan of factory and built one on Shelter Island, near
Greenport, N. Y.

Mr. Charles Tuthill, of Greenport, was the first to express fish, for
which we are very much indebted to him, as weU as many other im-
provements that have been used by him in the business. The first purse-
seine that was made, so far as I know, was made by John Tallman the
first, and Jonathan Brownell and Christopher Barker, in the year 1826.
It was 281 meshes deep and 65 fathoms long. The purse weight was a
56-pouud weight, and the blocks were the common single blocks, and
they had to reeve the end of the purse-line through the blocks, before
they put the purse- weight overboard. The first time the seine was set,
there were fourteen men to help; they set around what they called a
500-barrel school of menhaden, and, while they were pursing, the fish
rushed against the twine so hard, that they twisted and snarled the
twine around the purse line and weight to that extent, that the men
could not gather the seine up, or get her into the boat again as they
were, and, after they had worked six hours, and quarreled over the mat-
ter, they decided to tow or warp the seine ashore at high water, and,
when the tide left the seine, they would be able to unsnarl it, which
they did the next day. It was a number of days before they could
muster courage to set her again, and, when they did, they set around a
small school with better success.

48 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

The menhadeu fisheries have been carried on here very extensively,
catching them, before the oil factories were using many, expressly for
bait and for the farmers, the farmers using them very freely, Mr. Abner
Chase using, to my knowledge, 3,000 barrels a year some years (and
his son has told me that his father used one year upwards of 4,000 bar-
rels of menhaden fish) from 1849 to 1857. There were from 300 to 500
vessels a year after bait in Narragansett Bay, bank fishermen from New
London, Conn., and mackerel and cod fishermen from Massachusetts
and Maine, taking from 25 barrels to 150 barrels, some of them taking
bait two or three times in a season, paying from 25 to 50 cents a barrel
for them. There are not nearly as many vessels coming here now after
bait, because they can get the bait at their own homes. Capt. Benjamin
Tallman, of this place, formerly took the lead in the fishing business, at
one time running four gangs, but, at present, the business is carried on
more extensively in Tiverton, E. I., Joseph Church & Co. taking the
lead. I commenced fishing in the year 1847 and fished with Capt.
Nicholas Tallman, the most successful fisherman of his day. We fished
twelve springs at Seaconnet Point, with traps and purse-seins, for every
kind of fish that came along. It was my duty to be oft' on the water
with a small boat with another man, and look down in the water around
the trap, and to see if there were any fish that were likely to. go in the
trap. I observed that everything and all that came along in the spring
always came from the southwest and went northeast invariably. The
first fish that usually came along would be herring and shad, next tautog
and flounders, and, in a few days, striped bass and sea-robins or wing-
flsh. About the same time scup and sea bass, squid, menhaden, and
mackerel came, and every kind of fish full of spawn except men-
haden. I have taken a fish out of the trap many a time and put it in
the water, and headed it up the river, and, as quick as I let go of it,
it would turn at once and go down the river northeast, satisfying me
that the first run of fish, of every kind, belongs east of Ehode Island.
I never knew of a round mackerel to be caught three days after horse
mackerel made its first appearance. I have seen a great many horse
mackerel and have caught a great many, but never saw any signs of any
spawn in them. When menhaden fish first come, they seem to be about
G inches to 12 inches or more apart, verj^ thin, not in schools, always
going east, and in about a week after their first appearance they come
along in large schools. That body of fish would be four weeks or more
going by Rhode Island. The next body of menhaden that came along
were smaller fish and came very slow and worked in the rivers. Horse
mackerel and sharks were with them. We usually left the Seaconnet
Point about the 10th of June and went pursing menhaden, and could
always catch more than we could sell. In 1858 we had good fishing in
the spring, but no menhaden in the summer, anjl, as there were a num-
ber of fishing vessels here waiting for bait, we persuaded them to go to
New London, Conn, with us, which they did, and we found three schools

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 49

of menhaden off New London light, caught* them and baited the ves-
sels, and that was all that we could find. From there we went to Green-
port, L. I., and did not find anj^ there, although we heard of the fisher-
men hauling some ashore up at Jamesport and Eiver Head. That I
think was the dryest season for my business that I ever saw. Since
then, most of the time, there has been plenty of menhaden; although
I think it will average about one year in five, since I commenced, tha/t
fish are very scarce. In talking with some of the old fishermen, they
say by what they hear the menhaden are as plenty now as they were
when they first went fishing. They say that they then had seasons
when they were very scarce, and also when they were very plenty. The
fishermen here are all satisfied that the menhaden spawn in Ehode
Island waters, and the little menhaden that we see here are hatched
in Narragansett Bay. I went to Maine to build a pogie factory, the first
one that was ever built in Maine, in November, 18G3, and had it in run-
ning order June 10, 1864. The people of South Bristol, Me. told me
that I would not have any trouble catching all the pogies that I should
want in John's Bay, that the shores and bays were full of them, and
that they plagued and bothered them, while they were fishing for
mackerel, so much that they carried stones in their boats to stone or
drive them away, but I did not find them so. The fish were very scarce
in 1864. I got only 4,000 barrels. I cruised off-shore 20 miles and hailed
vessels. They reported that they had not seen any fish. The same year
Capt. Albert Grey, of Tiverton, started with four boats and a full gang
to fish in Maine. He sailed from Rhode Island to Mount Desert, Me.,
but did not see a school of menhaden to set at, and returned without
wetting his seine. Up to that time there had not been a purse-seine set
in the waters of Maine.* Therefore, it is very evident that it was not
the purse-seine that drove the pogies off the coast of IMaine at that time.
The first part of the fishing season of 1865 was not much better until the
4th of August. At that time a large body of very large and fat pogies
came in from off-shore from the southeast. They were not in schools, but
in one body. I fished between the islands of Damiscove and Mouhegau.
I, as well as my fishermen, thought that body of fish was eight miles
wide, and it seemed to completely fill the space between those two
islands, which is about ten miles. Capt. Washborn Clifford, of South
Bristol, was freighting canned lobsters from the factory at Isle an Haut
to Boston that season. He told me that the pogies seemed to be the
whole length of the coast, and he did not run out of them until he got
to Wood Island, a distance of one hundred miles. He said they made
him think of a heavy shower of rain falling on the ocean; the ocean

appeared to be alive with them. It may seem like a large story to tell,

• .

* This statement needs some slight modification. Though menhaden were scarce in
Maine in 1864, many thousands of barrels were caught. Purse-seines were used in
these waters by Gloucester fishermen in search of menhaden and mackerel as early a8
1857.

Bull. U. S. F. C, 81 4

50 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

but, kuowing the captain and knowing that, where I was fishing, the fish
were in one body of about ten miles square, I have every reason to
believe Captain Clifford's statement.

I honestly believe if the fishermen of Maine had had the exj^erience
in using the i^urse-seine in 1865 they have now, they would have
taken out of the ocean between one and two millions of dollars' worth of
wealth in pogies that season. I caught that summer upwards of forty
thousand dollars' worth with one purse-seine. That body of pogies left
the 1st of October, and worked gradually to the southeast. Everybody
must admit that that large body of fish have lived and passed away long
before this, as far as we know, without the least benefit to mankind, and
I also believe that while the jDresent fishing law is in force it will be the
means of depriving the fishermen of Maine from taking hundreds of
thousands of dollars' worth of fish from the ocean, that are about to pass
away without being brought into use. There are two schools or families
of pogies that usually come on the coast of Maine. The first follows
the coast of Virginia along the shores to Maine, generally going into
the rivers and bajs. They usually get there about the 1st of June.
They are the same kind of menhaden that we catch in the waters west
of Cape Cod. They resemble Figure 1 in the Report of 1876-'77. About
the middle of July to the 1st of August (and sometimes later) we have
a school of pogies come inshore from the ocean, from a southeast direc-
tion, and make their first appearance to the east of Monhegan Island.
These fish are very large and fat ; resemble Fig. 3 in the Eeport of 1876-
'77. They work gradually to the west, sometimes as far as Wood Island.
These fish are never found to have any spawn in them. They generally
leave the coast of Maine about the 20th of September. After cruising
about some two or three days after they leave, and finding no fish, we
start at once for Proviucetown, Mass., expecting to fall in with them
there ; but we always find the pogies, that we get there, with spawn in
them about 3 inches long. It seems that they cannot be the pogies that
left the coast of Maine, as we never find the large fat fish in Maine with
any sign of spawii, and all the pogies we catch at Proviucetown in the
fall have spawn in them. My idea is that the large fat pogies strike off
the coast of Maine in the fall and do not make the shore again, unless
they make the Carolina shore (if they make any shore), and the men-
haden that we have passing along the New England coast in the fall
are the same ones that went east in the spring. They always have
sjniwn in them when they return in the fall, and it is not an uncommon
thing to find spawn in them in Maine.

There is one more subject to which attention should be directed : I
fished in Gardner's Bay, New York, five years or seasons from the spring
of 1851) to the fiill of 1861. On August 17, 1862, a school of very large
fat menhaden came into Gardner's Bay, which made 14 gallons of oil to
the thousand of fish without exj^ressing. The next season, the 18th of
August, the same kind of fish came again, and since that Mr. G. W.

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 51

Miles and Mr. Henry E. Wells have told me, that the same kind of fish
have made their appearance in Long Island Sound, making 18 gallons
of oil to the thousand fish. This is much fatter than any that I ever
knew iu Maine.

PoRTSMOUTHj R. I., January 24, 1880.

FISH Crt,TURE IN IVE\r ZEAIiAND.

By B. J. CREIGHTOW.

San Francisco, Cal., May 13, 1881.
Hon. Professor Baird, Washington^ D. C. :

Dear Sir : I have to apologize for not returning your circular inqui-
ries relative to fish-culture sooner; but, as I was only j)ersonally inter-
ested in the colonial work of fish-culture, I was unable to do so satisfac-
torily'.

I have, however, received some information from iN'ew Zealand by the
last mail which may jjrove interesting to you.

Mr. J. C. Firth, of Auckland, president of the Acclimatization Society
there, writes to me to state that "Salmon have been caught in Wairoa
Eiver, about ten miles south of Auckland City. They have also ap-
peared in other rivers, notably the Thames, in isolated cases. [The
Thames is a large navigable river about fifty miles south of Auckland.]
I must confess to some disappointment," he adds, "in not seeing more
salmon, and I can only account for the circumstance by supposing that
one of our native fish, a most voracious fellow, the ' kawai,' has devoured
the young fish on the banks. I am glad to be able to rej)ort that the
' whitefish' from Lake Michigan have been seen in considerable num-
bers in Kotorua, Tarawera, and Taupo Lakes."

In explanation I may say that the first salmon ova (about 30,000)
reached Auckland in 1874 or 1875, I am not sure which. Of these a
few were hatched out and placed in the Wairoa. At the close of 1876,
I had the honor to open a correspondence with you on the subject of a
further shipment of salmon ova through Cross & Co., San Francisco,
and this and a third shipment were made, the ova being pretty widely
distributed north and south. 1 have had a note from Mr. Farr, secre-
tary of the Acclimatization Society, Christ Church, Xew Zealand, in
which he states that a salmon had been caught in one of the Canter-
bury rivers, and similar reports have come from more southerly dis-
tricts. Mr. Farr also reports that 30,000 young whitefish had been
hatched out in the society's hatching-house, and placed in a mountain
lake, and were doing well.

The whitefish deposited in the large lakes of Otago, in the south of
Kew Zealand, have not showed themselves, but, as the conditions are
favorable, I have no doubt they are doing well.

52 BULLETIN 01- THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

A small shipmeut of salmon ova was made to Sir S. Wilson, of Vic-
toria, I think, and they appear to have succeeded, as I noticed, some
months ago, that a 7-pound fish was caught and had been served at a
banquet to the Marquis of Normauby, the governor, and other guests.

From this you will gather that the acclimatization of United States
fish in New Zealand and Australia had been successful. English brook
trout. Eastern and California trout, have likewise been introduced with
great success in New Zealand ; also English carj).

Cat-fish were landed alive in Auckland from San Francisco, but what
became of them I cannot say. I fancy that from an ignorant prejudice
they were permitted to perish. These were forwarded by Dr. Hugh
Craig, agent New Zealand Insurance Company for the Pacific coast.
Mr. Craig has also made two attempts to send down edible crabs from
this State by mail steamer. The first attemi)t failed ; I have not heard
the result of the second.

There are several private fish hatcheries in New Zealand ; one owned
by Mr. W. Johnson, of Opawa, in Canterbury, being the best known.
He has introduced Eastern brook trout, and he wrote to me, that he had
been successful in crossing the English and American trout, and that
the young cross-breed grew faster and larger than either variety.
Whether he has established a new variety of fish I cannot, of course, say.

In California, Mr. Redding, and the other gentlemen of the Fish Com-
mission, will be able to inform you fully of what is being done by
private enterprise. My own idea, however, is that far too little atten-
tion is paid to this matter by the State legislature, the appropriation
for the fish commission being wholly inadequate, and I don't think
very much is done by private individuals. They want to be educated
up to the point of appreciating the industiial and economic value of the
patriotic work in which you and the subordinate fish commissioners are
engaged.

I inclose a newspaper clipi)ing bearing upon this subject, which prob-
ably you have already seen.

I regret very much that I am not able to give you more explicit
information on tbis subject, but these general statements will serve to
show the importance of the United States Fish Commission to foreign
countries.

I should add here that, whereas California salmon have succeeded in

New Zealand and Australia, the English salmon, introduced much

earlier, were a failure.

I am, very respectfully,

E. J. CEEIGHTON.

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 53

AITIERICAIV BIRDS, ANlMAIiS, AI¥» FlimiES FOR NEW ZEAI.AIVDERS.

[Extract.]

The persistent efforts of New Zealand in the work of acclimatization
deserves the utmost commendation. Half a century ago there were no
domestic animals in that country, except a few herds of cattle and
horses introduced by the early missionaries at the Bay of Islands, near
the extreme north of the northern island. The celebrated discoverer,
Captain Cook, had introduced sheep and swine half a century earlier,
but the sheep very soon jierished. The swine, however, increased
rapidly, and became a nuisance to sheep-farmers after the colonization
of the country, rewards being paid for their destruction as if they
were noxious vermin. The colony was founded in 1840, and the natives
had then barely abandoned their cannibal practices — desolating- inter-
tribal wars having lasted till within a few years of that date. Since
then, the progress of the country has been the most remarkable on
record. It has succeeded in acclimatizing- nearly all the game birds of
the old and new worlds. California quail are more plentiful there than
in that State. Pheasants, grouse, partridges, etc., afford excellent
sporty the several provinces competing with each other in the work of
acclimatizing them. The song-birds of England are fully represented,
and these, with the native songsters, make mountain and plain vocal
the year round. Prairie chickens and mountain quail have likewise
been introduced, sixteen of the latter birds out of twenty-two recently
sent to Nelson by Eobert J. Creighton, agent of the colony, having ar-
rived there. These birds were forwarded from Emigrant Gap by J. B.
Chinn, .who took great interest in the matter. Deer-stalking is now
possible in many parts of New Zealand, red and fallow deer having
been introduced and increased wonderfully. The rivers are full of
English and California trout, eastern trout being likewise represented.
In the San Francisco Post particulars were published of a cross between
eastern and English trout by Mr. Johnson, of Opawa, in the Canterbury
province of New Zealand ; the hybrid growing larger and faster than
the pure fish of either variety. California salmon have likewise been
acclimatized, and are in almost every river of any volume in the islands.
English salmon are established in New Zealand, also salmon trout. The
latter fish has increased very fast, and is now purchasable in most of
the markets of the colony. But the great interior lakes of the country
are comparatively without fish; indeed, in several of them and tributary
rivers fish-life can scarcely be said to exist. To remedy this defect two
attempts were made to stock the lakes with whitefish from Lake Michi-
gan. These attempts failed in the colony from local causes. This year,
however, another effort is being made on a much larger scale than
formerly. Mr. Creighton has arranged for the shipment of over

54 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

20,000,000 whitefish eggs from the fisli-liatching establishment of Frank
N. Clark, ITorthville, Mich., by the mail-steamer Australia. The eggs
will be packed in mountain ice, and carefully watched during the
voyage. On their arrival at Auckland they will be transferred to a
colonial steamer, preparations having been made for their reception and
distribution throughout the colony. Mr. Clark kindly forwarded to Mr.
Creighton models of his patent hatching-boxes, and these are already
in the colony, so that no hitch will occur in this regard. Mr. Clark
telegraphed from Omaha on the 15th that the eggs had been shii)ped in
good condition, and would arrive in San Francisco on the 10th. Mr.
Clark came with the shipment from ISTorthville to Omaha, to insure
against any damage or accident en route. The friends of acclimatiza-
tion in this State will be gratified, no doubt, at the success of the ex-
periment. Of the Australian group of colonies !N"ew Zealand is more
closely identified with this country than any other. — [Frank Leslie'ii Il-
lustrated Newspaper.)

CARP IIV THE HUDSOiV RITJGR.

By E. E. SHEARS.

CoxsACKiE, Greene County, New York,

January 26, 1881.
Prof. S. F. Baird,

U. S. Fish Commissioner^ Washington, D. C. :

Dear Sir : Will you please send me your last report. If you have
anything special on the carp, please send that also. Are there any
carp in the Hudson Eiver f I find in " Transactions of the American
Institute," dated 1850, page 397 :

" Mr. Meigs. We are pleased to see among us Captain Eobinson, of
Newburgh, who brought the car^i from England several years ago, thus
conferring a great benefit upon his country by adding a fish before that
unknown in our waters.

"' Captain Robinson. I brought the carp from France about seven
years ago, put them in the Hudson River, and obtained protection for
them from our legislature, which passed a law imi^osing a fine of $50
for destroying one of them. I put in gold-fish at the same time. Now
some of these carj) will weigh two jjouuds, and some of the gold-fish,
which are a species of the carp, are quite large, some of them being
pure silvery white. Both kinds are multiplying rapidly."

I notice that the gold-fish are quite plenty in the river in this vicinity;
also a fish about the size and shape, which is called a silver-fish, but they
do not correspond to Captain R.'s description of the silver-fish. These
are nearly or quite as dark as a rock -bass. I have seen none that would
"weigh over one pound and a half. When ca ught in fykes by the fishermen
they are usually pronounced unfit to eat and thrown back in the river^

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 55

However, last fall I saw them peddled througli the streets, and the
fishermen told me they could catch scarcely any other kind, and they
sold as well as perch or bass. I have not had an opportunity to taste
any of them, therefore am no judge of their flavor.
Respectfully,

E. E. SHEARS.

SUOOESTIOIVS TO FISH CUL,TURISTS.
By OARRICK M. IIARDIIVO.

Wilkes-Barre, Pa., January IG, 1880.
Prof. Spencer F. Baird,

■ U. 8. Commissioner of Fisheries :

My Dear Sir : In reply to your esteemed favor of recent date, per-
mit me to say that for ten years past and upwards public attention has
been largely directed throughout the Northern States of the Union to
the subject of fish-culture. Formerly the interest felt in this matter
was mostly confined to sportsmen, bat the rapid increase of population,
the growing necessities for food, added to the fact that our forests were
fast i^assing away, our mountain streams and wooded lakes denuded of
their shade and converted into other than purely nature's uses, have, alto-
gether, awakened a general interest in the subject. While the actual
number of those personally engaged in fish-culture is limited, yet the
whole mass of our peojile may be said to be looking now with encour-
aging favor upon the enterprise.

Indi^iduals associate together in a sort of quasi corporation and -pur-
chase ponds and inland lakes, rent creeks and even small rivers, stock
them with fish of various kinds, always observing, however, adaptabili-
ties both as respects the waters and the fish. Thus sport and supply
go hand in hand, i^or are the owners or controllers of such waters
alone benefited. These ponds and inland lakes are the sources which
make up the rivers that flow, often in large volume and for great dis-
tances, through the country to the sea. They too become stocked, teem
with choice fish. The public at large thus have brought within their
reach, without cost, the sport and supply which, in the beginning,
seemed designed only for the few.

In order to have the most satisfiictory results from this system of
buying or controlling ponds and inland lakes, experience has shown
that the outlets should be secured by a galvanized-wire screen of a mesh
not greater than three-quarters of an inch in size. If brook trout, black
bass, or pickerel be the fish with which any such water is stocked, the
small fry, appearing generally the first year but surely after the second,
will find their way through the meshes of the screen in numbers suffi-
ciently great to stock abundantly in three or four years every comming-
ling and suitable water below. Brook trout, however, should never be

56 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

placed in a pond or small inland lake along with either black bass or
pickerel. They are the fish of fishes, and deserve to have a domain ex-
clusively to themselves, always excepting the minnow and possibly the
shiner. These latter are the natural if not necessary food for brook
trout. Indeed, the culture of all three together is always advisable.

Black bass and pickerel may be placed together in any natural or
artificial reservoir large enough to be dignified as a i^ond, though the
former will thrive much better where the water is not less than from 12
to 30 feet deep, with rocky shores and a rocky or gravel bottom ; tlie
latter will thrive in a less depth with mud for a bottom and marshes for
surroundings. Cultivated together, each will prey upon the other, but
the black bass will get ahead at last.

The easiest and of course the best, indeed the only, fish to cultivate
in rapid and mountain streams is the brook trout. And 3'et in the States
of Pennsylvania and Kew York, or at least in the newer portions of
them, the streams best aday^ted for this purpose are absolutely valueless
for the cultivation of any sort of fish whatever. Most of the creeks and
small rivers rise and flow through forests of pine and hemlock. They
are dammed up at intervals and set back in some instances for distances
.varying from one to four miles. Great bodies of water are thus accu-
mulated, and into these, especially in the winter time, millions of logs are
thrown, some 12 feet in length with a diameter from 8 to 40 inches, and
some anywhere from 12 to 40 feet in length with diameters correspond-
ing. Spring time comes, and in addition to the melting snows and the
usual rains of the season, which of themselves commonly swell these
streams into torrents, the gates of the dams are hoisted and these logs
plunge along through gorges at a frightful rate down toAvards the jilaces
of lumber manufacture, tearing away banks and overhanging shade,
filling np natural holes for fish rest and hiding, and destroying in one
way and another all fish-life outright. Even with such floods of natiu-al
and stored waters the weight of lumber is often so great that a "drive"
of only a few miles is attained. The dams are closed again, myriads of
little fish that have taken refuge in overflows or pools formed for the
moment outside of the main channels, die as the waters recede. The
logs jam, as it is called, and, piling one ujion another from shore to shore
for miles, they sink down crushing to death the large fish in great num-
bers. This work of incidental fish-destruction is repeated from day to
day, and will continue to go on until lumbering of this sort shall be at
an end. In the mean time all attem^its at fish-culture in streams of this
character may as well be abandoned. Success will be impossible.

I have thus, sir^ given you my views and the results of my observa-
tions appertaining to the subject which, I nm. rejoiced to see, you have
so much at heart.

Very respectfully,

GAEKICK M. HARDING.

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 57

A GERMAN TIEW OF THE AMERICAN SECTION IN THE BERIilN

FISHERV EXHIBITION.

By DIRECTOR HAACK.

• [Translation. ]

[From ''Eeferat des Herm Direktor Haack iiber die Internationale Fischerei-Aus-
steUung zii Berlin." (Keport of Director Haack on the International Fishery-Expo-
sition at Berlin). Metz, 1880.]

Everytliing whicli America had sent was on a magnificent scale. The
American exhibit was distinguished by the enormous number of objects
placed on exhibition, giving not merely a faint image of the fisheries,
but a complete view of the fresh-water and salt-water fisheries, for the
greater part in original representations. The American exhibit was
moreover distinguished by the neat workmanship of all the objects and
by an exemplary arrangement which in all x)articulars showed the prac-
tical man. It is impossible to enter into details, as this would take up
our entire space, for the American department was a complete fishery-
exposition in itself.

We shall, therefore, only cast a rapid glance at the numerous boats,
both originals and models, examine a little more closely the "dories,"
so much admired by all connoisseurs, learn to know the portable canoes
of the Indians and trappers made of bark and skins, admire the truly
magnificent scientific collection filling several rooms, and finally devote
some time to the department of pisciculture.

Much of the apparatus on exhibition was already known to us, as for
about three years we have imitated the Americans in this respect; thus
we know the Holton apparatus, the Wilmot hatching-funnel (really, as
we now learn, invented by the well-known American pisciculturist, Fre'd.
Mather, who twice already has safely transported eggs of the California
salmon to Europe); the Seth Green shad apparatus, &c. But lost
in astonishment we stand before the large model of the Fish-hawk, a
large steamship specially constructed by the American Government for
purposes of pisciculture. This steamshii) contains, both in its interior and
on its sides, hundreds of large pieces of apparatus for hatching fish-eggs.
The steam-engine partly serves for pumping up the water, thus producing
a constant current of water through all the apparatus inside the vessel,
and partly for moving to and fro in tbe water the appa;^atus attached to
the sides of the vessel, thus vivifying the germs of the eggs. This govern-
ment steamer visits the principal fishing-stations during the spawning-
season of the shad — a fish closely resembling our " May-fish " {Alosa) —
takes up hundreds of millions of impregnated eggs, develops them further
in the manner described above, and, when the young fish have been

58 BULLET FN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

hatched, sets them outin the most suitable phices. This steamer also goes
out tosea and hatches millions and millions of the finest salt-water fish.
With all our piscicultural efforts we must confess that we felt very small
when viewing this grand American exhibit; and the magnificent results
obtained in America are a sufficient guarantee that this is no "Ameri-
can humbug." For the present we can certainly do no better than to
strain every nerve and imitate the example set us by the Americans.

PEAT-BOOS AH FISH-PONDS.*

[From " Oesterreichisch-Ungarische Fisclierei-Zeitimg," volume IV/ No. 1, Vienna,

January 1, 1881.

The proi)rietor of the establishment Ficlithof near Stettin has shown
how easily and with what little expense fish-ponds can be made, and
how well it pays to stock them with young fish; for his pond, with an
area of one-fourth acre, not only supplies his large family with food, but
also yields him a very fair revenue. ]^ine years ago he commenced to
dig peat from a very barren piece of ground. The peat was found to
rest on a layer of lime, which he likewise utilized. When the spring-
water began to overflow the ground, he got a i^eat-raising machine, with
which he took out all the lime and peat. The very first year, this
thoroughly exhausted peat-bog and lime-pit was stocked with one-year
old pike, i^erch {Perca flitviatilis), bleak, tench, and bastard carps
{Cyprinus carassius). During the first five years these fish were well
protected; and four years ago he commenced to catch fish which were
fully matured and particularly fat. Thus he has, among other fish,
caught with a spear a very fat pike weighing 9J pounds, which cer-
tainly must have been one of the fish with which the pond was stocked
in the beginning, which shows that it had increased about one pound
in weight per year. The pond in question has now an area of one-fourth
acre and an average depth of 12 feet. The banks are very steep down
to the bottom, and the water is spring- water, which, through subterra-
nean channels, comes from the neighboring pine forest of Leha. The
water flows off' through a draining ditch ; but fish cannot escape in that
way, as the outflowing water has not sufficient depth. The pond seems
to contain an abundance of fish-food. The water rests on the charac-
teristic lake-bottom ; the steep banks, going from bottom to top, show
first a layer of marshy peat about 6 inches thick and utterly worthless;
on this rests the marsh-line — a mass of sweet- water shells — 3 feet thick ;
next comes a layer of very valuable peat, 7 feet thick, and on the top
of this a layer of drift sand, 2 feet thick, overgrown with grass. The
sides of the pond therefore contain lime, peat, and sand. From these
sides, perhaps also from the supply of forest water entering the pond
through subterranean channels, the fish obtain their food ; for they are

*Torfgruben als Fishteiche.— Translated by Herman Jacobson.

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 59

not fed, and it is scarcely probable that the excrement of geese, which
during summer wander about the banks and swim on the pond, and
consequentlj" feed altogether on grass, furnishes any food for the fish.
Some water also flows into the pond above ground; along the edges
grow Glyceria fluitans and J uncus, and Confervce rest upon the water.
Fishing in this pond is carried on by means of bow-nets, a seine, and
spears. Large pike and perch do their share to i)revent the over-
crowding of the pond. This jjond furnishes another proof that every
exhausted peat-bog may be used as a fish-pond, if it contains water.
Such bogs, however, must admit of fishing ; no edges of peat should
therefore be left, and the refuse should not be thrown into the
pond, but carried away and used as manure. Such ponds, which have
formerly been j)eat-bogs, are found in many places, and are absolutely
useless as long as not stocked with fish. Every farm might have fish-
ponds, if people would take more interest in this matter, and would
display more energy in transforming these exhausted peat-bogs, over-
grown with poisonous weeds and full of parasites, into fish-ponds,
yielding a revenue.

CASTRATING FISH.*

By HERR WEDDIOE.

[From "Deutsche Fischerei-Zeitung," volume iv, No. 1, Stettin, January 4, 1881.]

The writer of these lines has years ago spoken to fishermen and
advised them to make experiments regarding the possibility and jirob-
able success of the castrating of fish by removing the roe or the milt.
This matter has also been spoken of in the "Deutsche Fischerei-Zei-
tung," p. 483, but, as far as known to tbe writer, no such experiments
have been made. It is probably not very diflicult to remove the roe or
milt from live fish, but of course it will be necessary to exercise great
caution in doing it. The belly would have to be ripped open with a
very sharp knife, the roe or milt would have to be loosened verj' care-
fully without injuring any other organs, and the cut would finally have
to be sewed ui) with the greatest care. It is probable that the wound of
a fish treated in this manner will heal very soon. The nutricious mat-
ter which would otherwise have served for forming roe or milt will cer-
tainly cause a more rapid increase of flesh and fat, and therefore an
equally rapid increase in the weight of the fish. For such experiments
young, but full-grown, fish should be selected (jjerhai^s two or three year
old trout) whose generative matter has not yet been fully developed
(the time for trout would therefore be April and May). i!s"one should
engage in such experiments but those who possess the necessary leisure
and knowledge. If such experiments should prove successful, the cas-
trating of a large number of fish will possibly prove an advantage to

* ^^ Kastrirung von FiscJien." — Translated by Herman Jacobson.

60 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

tlie owners of closed fish-ponds. It is of course impossible to say in
advance whether such advantage would be commensurate to the trouble
and probable loss of fish by unsuccessful operations. Only the more valu-.
able fish, e. g., trout, and perhaps carp, would be fit subjects for such
experiments.

Note. — We have received the following letter on the same subject :

"Eeferring to the question whether it is possible to castrate fish, in
Nos. 52 and 53 of the ' Deutsche Fischerei-Zeitung,' I would observe
that the idea is not a recent one. Thus the author of ' Wohlbewahrte
Fischgehehnnisse oder deutlicher Unterricht von der grossen N'utzharlieit
der Fischerei, wie audi von der FiscJie Natur und Eigenscliaft ; nehst
einer Amveisung, ivie sie bequem zufangen, und zu welcher Zeit man solche
am Besten halte^ (Well preserved fish-secrets or plain instructions re-
garding the great usefulness of fisheries, also regarding the nature and
qualitj' of fish ; accomi^anied by hints how to catch fish in the easiest
manner, and during what season they can best be kept) ; 2d and im-
proved edition, Nuremberg, by George Bauer, 1758, in the chapter
entitled ' On the Castrating of Fish ' [von der Verschneidung der Fische),
gives the following extract from '■Histoire de VAcademie des Sciences
1742, Observations de physique V : ' Mr. Sloane, the former President
of the Eoyal Society of London, has written to Mr. Geofiroy, towards
the end of December last, that an unknown person had revealed to
him the secret how to castrate fish and make them grow fat thereby.
This person, who originally was nothing but a net-maker, and had
formerly lived 5 or 6 miles from Mr. Sloane's country place, had built
up a considerable trade in fish by his skill in managing them. This
strange communication excited the curiosity of the naturalist, and
the fish merchant-offered to show him the exj)eriment. He took eight
bastard carps {Cyprinus carassius), a species of small carp which had
recently been brought to England from Hamburg, and placed them
into two large vessels filled with water, which was renewed once or
twice during the experiment. He began by opening one of these eight
carps with a knife, and showing Mr. Sloane the ovarium which opens
into that part which is called ' the cloaca.' He thereupon cut open an-
other carx), laid bare the ovarium, and closed the wound with a piece of
a black hat. The carp which had been cut were jjlaced with the other
six, but did not seem able to swim as well as the rest. They were finally
all thrown into a small pond iu Mr. Sloane's garden, which is supplied
with water from a neighboring river, and v»here, he thinks, they were
still living at the time when he wrote to Mr. Geoffroy. Further infor-
mation is not given. This man, whose name is Samuel Tull, promised
Mr. Sloane, that in spring he would invite him to a dish of cut fish, which
were said to excel other fish in flavor as much as a capon a common
rooster, and as a cut ox an uncut one. As there is much similarity
between land animals and fish, it is probable that castrating has the

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 61

same effect upon the latter, aucl Mr. Sloane thinks that this discovery
shoukl be further, investigated, and that it may serve to give a finer
flavor to fish, and to prevent their too rapid increase in fish-ponds, where
their number is too hirge as it is.'"

WEDDIGE.
OsNABRiJCK, December 15, 1880.

THE IIVTKODIJCTION OF STRIPED BASS IIVTO CAL.IFORIVIA.

By S. R. THROCKITIORTOjV.

San Francisco, Xovemher 12, 1880.
Hon. Spencer F. Baird,

U. S. Commissioner Fish and Fisheries

Smithsonian Institution, Washington, Z>. C,

Dear Sir : I have from unavoidable causes been compelled until now
to defer addressing you upon the subject of the transporting to, and
acclimatizing in, our waters the striped bass of your coast.

I have long had the impression, that the great bay of San Francisco,
together with the bays of San Pablo and Suisun connecting with it,
and the number of creeks running into them, affording a variety of
qualities and conditions regarding temperature and saline properties,
together with feeding material, would be well adapted to the propaga-
tion and growth of the striped bass.

Having this in view, I last year opened a correspondence with Mr.
Livingston Stone upon the subject of attempting the transfer of some
small fish at the time of the bringing on of the lobsters. Many diffi-
culties presented themselves in rhe matter of obtaining the small fry of
the striped bass, which resulted in my suggesting to Mr, Stone the proba-
bility of obtaining them in the extreme headwaters of the ^avesink or
Shrewsbury Eiver, in ^N^ew Jersey. Mr. Stone succeeded in obtaining a
small number at the place designated by me, and, with his usual skill,
brought them safely to this coast and deposited them at the head of the
straits of Carquinez, the turning point of the fresh and salt water.

Some six or seven months after the time of placing in the water I
heard that one of 8 inches in length had been taken in the bay of Mon-
terey, which is about one hundred miles south of this, and is an open
roadstead on the Pacific Ocean. All of the circumstances were of sa
doubtful a character that I gave the rumor but little attention, until
about :he 1st of July, eleven months after the planting of the young
fry, at the time about 1^ inches in length, in the straits of Carquinez,
there was brought to me a very handsome striped bass taken in this
harbor, measuring 12J inches in length and weighing one pound. The
fish was in the highest condition, the milt full and ripe, and the flavoi
fully up to the best specimens of the fish at the East. The exceedingly

62 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

rapid growth, indicating the adaptability of the waters of this bay to
this development, together, with the imaiense amount of shrimps, which
abound in this bay and furnish abundant food, have, I must acknowl-
edge, infused me with almost an enthusiasm to have this valuable fish
brought here in sufficient numbers to insure the breeding of them. I
have heard of some experiments having been made in breeding them
artificially. If that can be done, we might, of course, bring them out as
easily and in as great numbers as we now do shad, and my object in now
writing you is to ascertain the probability of such an effort being suc-
cessful.

If it cannot be done our only course must be to enlarge upon and
extend the experiment of last year. The small fry can be obtained in
the fresh-water heads of the Navesink, the Raritan, the Passaic, the
Hackensack, and, in fact, all of those small rivers which flow from the
New Jersey coast into the Atlantic and the bays emptying into it. Will
you be so kind as to give the matter some thought and let us have the
benefit of it? The shad are a success, and we feel satisfied that so soon
as they shall have reached such numbers as to insure contact we shall
breed them in abundance.

With much respect, I remain, yours truly,

S. R. THROCKMORTON,
Chairman California Fish Commission.

TSE SEIiF-PICKER.

By FRANK N. CLARK.

NORTHVILLE, MiCH., February 17, 1881.

Dear Sir: Responding to your request for my opinion concerning
the operations of self-pickers, I submit the following:

The name " Self-picker," as applied to any ova hatching apparatus
yet devised, claiming the ability within themselves to completely sepa-
rate the dead eggs from the living, is a misnomer.

All self-pickers, so called, are emf>loyed in hatching eggs by what is
known as the bulk method, and the principle on which they are operated
is the same in each. This principle is based on the supposition that all
ova of confervoid growth, which are, for the most part, lighter than the
live eggs, can be driven or separated from the latter by a properly
adjusted current of water. But, when we consider that a small i)ercent-
age of the dead eggs possess no greater buoyancy than the live ones,
and consequently a current of water, strong enough to drive off all of
the former, must necessarily take with it some of the latter, the imi^ossi-
bility of devising any api)aratus that will be a comi)lete self-picker or
separator will be readily seen. Nevertlieless, I consider the method of
bringing forward the eggs in bulk far superior to any of the lia'ching-
box or tray systems now in use. It is practicable, however, to develop

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 63

in bulk only such eggs the fry of which are able to swim out of the mass
of eggs when hatched, or are light enough to be thrown out by the
current of water. Ko objections on this score can be raised to this plan
for hatching ova of the whitefish {Coregonus albus), or of the shad {Alosa
sajridissima).

Of the several appliances which have been invented for hatching eggs
by the bulk method, those most prominent, and which are undoubtedly
the best, are the Mather & Bell cone, as improved by Major Ferguson,
and the Chase hatching-jar.

The cone has been used exclusively for hatching the shad, while the
jar has been confined to the whitefish work, with the exception of a
single experiment wi'oh shad-eggs, where it was found to work very well,
but must be tried still further before it can claim equality with the cone
for shad work.

The cone, too, with the " Clark" gate attachment, would, in all j)rob-
abilitj", equal the jar for hatching eggs of the whitefish, but has not been
sufiflciently tested in this direction to warrant its introduction without
further experiment.

The jar, although but recently introduced, has largely displaced the
hatching devices for whitefish work hitherto in use, and, when its merits
are more fully understood and appreciated, will, I think, entirely super-
cede all other appliances for the work in question. With its use one
man can take care of 20,000,000 ova, and thus its great economy, as
compared with any hatching-box ever invented, will be readily apparent.
This great difference in its favor may be credited to the fact of its being
so constructed and operated as to collect for the most j)art the eggs of
coufervoid growth at or near the surface of the mass of eggs, whence
they are easily removed. Thus it will be seen that they are "partial
separaters," but not " self-pickers."

But this partial separation of the dead eggs is a merit of no small
proportions, as but little time is required for their removal when massed
together, while the small percentage of dead eggs remaining unseparated
is rendered ijowerless to harm the living ones by the constant current of
water, which keeps the whole mass of eggs in ever-changing motion,
and thus protects the latter from the contaminating influences of the
former. It may be stated, as an actual fact, that where water of a tem-
perature not exceeding 40° F. is used, in consequence of which the cou-
fervoid growth is comparatively slow, a large percentage of dead eggs
may be allowed to remain or collect in a jar without jeopardizing the
lives of the remainder ; but the practice of removing all extraneous
eggs collecting at the surface is to be commended.

The method employed by Mr. Chase, inventor of the jar in question,
for removing these eggs, is to augment and thereby strengthen the cur-
rent of water in the jar to that degree necessary to Ibrce the mass of
eggs upward until the surface is on a level with the mouth of the jar,
the gate being raised in the mean time to allow the surface eggs to float

64 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

off.- But the most careful manipulation will fail to prevent tlie escape
of many good eggs with the bad ones when this plan is pursued, as the
line of separation between the two is not distinctly drawn.

I have found that a great saving of time, as well as eggs, can be effected
by using a glass siphon to draw off the surface eggs. I have also used
the siphon very successfully while operating the cone in shad hatching.
No nicety need be observed in this process, as all eggs thus separated
can be placed in a separate jar, when, in a few moments, a solid layer
of eggs of confervoid growth will collect on top and can be readily
siphoned away unattended with the loss of any good eggs, while the
latter can remain in the jar to be manipulated as before when necessary.
Other ways of assisting the jars to eliminate the extraneous eggs have
been tried, but I have found the siphon plan to be by far the most ex-
peditious and need not result in the loss of a single good egg by throw-
ing away. This plan, then, consists essentially in collecting the surface
eggs from the jars as often as may be necessary or desirable and con-
densing the same into one or more jars, from whence the most of the
dead eggs can be removed without disturbing the good ones ; by thus
completing, with the aid of the siphon, the n^itural operations of the jar
in separating the bad eggs from the good ones, the tedious and expensive
process of picking out the dead eggs with nippers is done away with.

In any method of incubating eggs wherein they are stationary, as^
with the hatching boxes and trays, a slimy coating will be found adher-
ing to the eggs which must be washed away as often as may be neces-
sary; and for the same reason, the trays, boxes, and troughs also will
require an occasional cleaning. And again, when the eggs are hatching^
the trays require a daily manij)ulation to dislodge a portion of the fry
and shells which will not escape through the meshes. All this work
is unnecessary when the jar is used ; the constant motion imijarted to
the eggs by the current of water keeps them bright and clean, and when
hatching the fry and shells are, by the upward current, drawn out
through the mouth of the jar into a tank for their reception, the gate at
the mouth of the jar being removed during the hatching season.

The following suggestions may be of service in operating the jar :^

It should be full of water, and, with its accessories, in position and
in running order before the introduction of the eggs ; but, while they are
being introduced, it is better to interrupt the water supply of the jar
being filled, which will prevent the eggs frdm flowing^ against and clog-
ging the wire gate.

The rubber connecting-pipe should extend down inside the glass tube
below the levfel of the water in the jar, to keep the water free from air-
bubbles.

Eggs are sometimes found bunched together on their arrival from the
spawning grounds; these should be broken up before their entrance
into the jar, as the movement of the water therein is too gentle to accom-
Ijlish this end.

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 65

The little projections or feet at the conical end of the glass tube
should be accurately ground so as to compel a uniform current to flow
from all points of the base of the tube. The capacity of the jar in
question may be stated as 150,000 eggs of the Coregonus albim.

At the present writing, I have a jar containing 40,000 eggs of the
whitefish, which are hatching very rapidly. These are the oldest eggs
on hand, and their speedy development was brought about by an acci-
dent. The main conducting pipe sprung a leak, which interrupted the
water supply of the jar for a few moments only ; but as soon as the
water was turned on again from another pipe, these eggs immediately
began hatching by the thousands. This shows that when the eggs are
nearly developed, their constant movement in the jar must not be
checked if it is thought advisable to detain the appearance of the fry
for the longest possible period. These eggs, however, were nearly ma-
ture, and the fry therefrom are lively and vigorous.

Yours, very truly,

FEANK N. CLAEK.
Prot. S. F. Baird,

U. 8. Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries, Washington, D. G.

COAIi ASHES AS A mEANS OF RAISINC} JUACKERELr II\ PURSE SEINES.

Bv S. J. MARTIIV.

Sometimes, when there is a large school of mackerel in the seine, they
are heavy on the bottom of the seine, so that it cannot be easily handled.
In such a case heave a bucket of coal ashes in the seine, and that will
bring the mackerel to the surface. Captain Coas, of schooner John S.
McQuinn, told me he had three hundred barrels of mackerel in his seine
and they lay so heavy on the twine that he could not move the seine
with twelve men hauling on the twine. He threw a bucket of coal ashes
in it, the mackerel came to the surface, and they could then easily haul
the seine. All the vessels that have tried it say it works well. The
cook saves the coal ashes.*

mETHOD OF USIIVC VF1X.I.ARI>'S PATENT POCKET FOR MACKEREL..

By S. J. MARTIN.

Capt. S. J. Martin, Gloucester, Mass., writes in his journal, under date
of June 30, 1881 :

" I will explain how Willard^s Patent Pocket is used for mackerel. In
the first place, there are two out-riggers 9 feet long and 4 inches through ;

*NOTE. — Ashes have been used, so Mr. Merchant tells me, for several years, but is
thrown outside of the seine instead of into it, as Captain Martin thought. The object
is to frighten the fish by making the water white, when they rise to the surface. Tlie
same result is obtained by the menhaden fishermen by giving a few quick turns of the
propeller. The fishermen call it "whirling them up." — J. W. Collins.
BuU. U. S. F. C, 81 5

66 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

one of the out-riggers goes into the rail at the main rigging. There is
an iron plate on the rail. What the fishermen call a 'goose neck' is
on the inner j)art of the out-rigger that goes down through the iron
l^late on the rail. The forward out-rigger is forward of the fore-rigging
and is fixed the same as the after one. There is a guy on the end of
the outriggers to keep them steady. The guy on the after one leads
aft, and the guy on the forward one leads forward. The length, the
distance between the out-riggers on board of a ninety-ton vessel, is 32
feet. The mouth of the bag is 33 feet wide; ii^is fastened on the out-
rigger to within 4 feet of the end. There are stops on the out-riggers to
fasten the ijocket on. The inner part of the pocket is made fast to the
rail of the vessel between the two out-riggers. There is a block on the
outer part of the out-rigger. A block is made fast to the rigging, half
way up the mast, that forms a tackle to the outer end of each out-rigger.
When the seine has mackerel in it, the pocket is made fast to the inner
part of the seine, the out-riggers are lowered down to the edge of the
water and the mackerel are poured into the pocket. The i)ocket will
hold two hundred and fifty barrels of mackerel. It is made of stout
twine, 1 J-inch mesh. Some of the vessels have dressed a whole trip out
of the pocket. When the mackerel are in the pocket, the seine is ready
for a new school. All the seiners are having pockets made. All rigged,
the pockets cost $80. The size of the pocket is 8 fathoms deep, 32 feet
wide, 14 feet long.

FIRST APrEARAIVCE OF FI$!)H AT CLOUCESTEB, 1881.

By CAPT. S. J. MARTIN.

The herring came May 5, and were small. May 6, the large herring
came. May 13, the first mackerel caught in trap at Kettle Island, thir-
teen in number. The first tautog were caught May 13 in the trap at
Kettle Island. The fir§t perch caught May 8. Flounders and sculpin
first caught A^jril 21. The small pollock came in the harbor May 2.
Alewives first caught May 13. The first menhaden caught off Long
Branch May 6, by Gallup & Holmes' steamers, of New London ; 800
barrels taken in one day. Finback whales have been plenty since the
first of Ajiril. Schooner Alice, of Swan's Island, was in Boston Monday,
with 30,000 mackerel, caught off Block Island. The mackerel are com-
ing east fast and are of good size. Pollock are plentiful at Chatham.
Two vessels got 35,000 pounds each with seines; they were schooling on
top of the water, the same as mackerel.

Gloucester, May 18, 1881.

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 67

ON TOE PROPAOATION OF THE STRIPED BAS8.
By E. R. IVORNY.

Odessa, Del,, 3Iay 9, 1881.
Prof. Spencer F. Baird :

I have read with great satisfaction a correspondeut's account in the
New York Herald of the 2d instant in regard to your success in the
Albemarle Sound ; but I find the propagation of the striped bass or rock
is still as much of an enigma as ever. The correspondent says the fisher-
men think they have discovered the place where they spawn.

Let me here otter a suggestion. Since my last communication to you,
I have conversed with a gentleman interested in the striped bass, who
informed me that he conversed with a gentleman from Wilmington, Del.,
who said to him that on one occasion he saw a large female bass cast her
spawn on the boulder rocks in the vicinity of Wilmington Creek, Del.
This is the location where we supposed those fish spawn from the fact
that it is here that the young fry are first numerously seen. The Dela-
ware State side of the stream at this point is full of loose boulder rocks,
and the gentleman said the fish seemed to remain and defend her spawn.
I have tried to verify the truth of this statement, but have been unable
to ascertain the gentleman's name. The only doubt is, the general turbid
condition of the waters of the Delaware would make it difticult to see
any considerable distance below the surface ; but, perhaps, in the dry
season of May at low water he may hav^e seen what is here represented,
for those large fish venture in very shallow water. If such is the case,
then your Albemarle fisherman should look for rocky or bouldery bottom
to find the spawning ground of the striped bass.

I have not altered my opinion that the true mode to propagate these
fish is to pen up the immature fish and retain them until their maturity,
both male and female.

I now have in captivity a sixty-pound female, which I have had so
confined for nearly two weeks under very unfavorable circumstances.
The pond contains an area of about half an acre, but is shoal, the greater
portion not being over one foot deep; but there are several rods square
that contain from three to five feet in depth. The misfortune of this
pond is that it takes an extra high tide to put water in it, and the fish
has only had fresh water in the pond but once since its capture. If provi-
dence favors me with a few tides to fill the pond with a fresh supply of
water, I have no doubt I shall carry it over the spawning time, which,
I think, will be by the 1st of June. The object is not to propagate the
fish, but to prove the feasibility of thus keeping them and to determine
the time of their maturity. If they can thus be kept, and I have not

68 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

the least doubt of it, I could have furnished this season to a pond both
male and female fish sufficient, with the same success in hatching as with
shad, to have produced 100,000,000 young fish of a species second to no
other in our seaboard waters. As it was, all the large fish, after being
captured, were turned loose again to propagate in their own natural way.

These fish, in confinement, will require a liberal supi^ly of food. I
have placed in the pond a supply of live herring, as I found on cut-
ting one open, weighing about 35 j)ounds, that its maw contained two
large-sized herring, one more than half digested, the other in perfect
form.

I hope to have the good fortune to capture this fish on the 1st of June^

and find it past maturity, and be able to again return it to the bay.

Yours, &c.,

E. E. NORNY.

A. OEORCilA CARP POIVD.
By ABEL, A. WRIOHT.

Griffin, Ga., 3fay 14, 1881.
Prof. Spencer F. Baird :

Esteemed Sir : The sketches of my fish pond failed to reach you,
and I am sorry, because I wanted you to see them and tell me how you
like my plans, &c. This i^ond I built before I ever heard of a carp, or
saw a drawing as in Hessel's work, the ideas being my own. The carp
are genuine beyond a doubt, because there is no earthly chance for any
fish to get into the pond, no fish being in the streams it empties into,
and nothing but beautiful clear springs feediug it only a few hundred
feet off; and there is a large fall, about one-quarter of a mile below, that
no fish can get above, the water falling perpendicularly over a shelving
rock. I was extremely particular in regard to this matter. If I go to
Florida in the fall, I will superintend getting a fine lot of aquatic plants
and send them to you at my own expense. The carp feed ravenoursly
on moss that grows in the water ; I had boxes of it shipped to me, and
I know what I am talking about. I notice one thing, the carp love to
spawn among the thick masses of weeping-willow roots that grow out
in the water ; they have great masses of fine fibrous roots. I have seen
hundreds of pounds iu the water near the bank where they would spread
out in the water for yards around; and another thing, a little black
caterpillar about an inch or more long, with yellow spots, comes on the
weeping willow and drops into the water. I have seen the large carp
lie watching for them, and, when one falls in the water, the carp would
take him in out of the wet ; and also grasshoppers and earth-worms
thrown into them. I buy damaged crackers from Atlanta by the barrel

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 69

and feed with them ; I get them at two cents per pound ; I have five
barrels now just received. If feeding- well will make them grow they
shall have it. It is funny to see the little fellows eating small crumbs ;
sometimes a dozen will be around one small crumb and stick to it until
it is all gone. I delight in sitting at my pond watching the fish, and
they seem to know me and my wife from strangers, judging from their
actions. I will make another drawing of my pond and send you if you
did not get the one sent. Nothing will please me better than to meet
you and talk fish. I have exterminated the bull-frog and snake tribe,
and all is quiet on the lake at night now, and not a ripple is made by
his snakeship seeking the tempting frog or fish.

ABEL A. WEIGHT.

MOVEITIEIVrS OF YOIJIVG AL,E\» IVES (?) (POMOtiOBUS SP.) IW COL.O-

RADO RIVER, TEXAS.

By TARL,ETO]¥ H. BEAN.

The United States National Museum has recently received from Mr.
J. H. Selkirk, of Matagorda, Texas, two small ale wives, measuring about
one inch in length, which are wonderfully like the fry of the common
alewives of the Potomac and other northern rivers. They have been
compared directly with fry of nearly the same size taken opposite Wash-
ington, and, while we cannot say positively that they are identical with
the " branch " ale wife or herring, yet we believe that they are the same
species. Mr. Selkirk sent the fish to Professor Baird, thinking that they
might prove to be shad, which, indeed, they resemble. I quote from his
letter to the Commissioner the details of his observations upon them :

" Matagorda, Tex., April 20, 1881.
" To the Fish Commissioner,

" Washington, D. C. :

" Dear Sir : I inclose two small fish. Please inform me what species
they are. My reason for asking is, that some few years ago there were
some shad placed in the Colorado Eiver at Austin, and, as I have never
seen any shad, and these were taken out of the same river near its
mouth, I thought it possible they were shad. They were all going up
stream, and in innumerable quantities. I am not exaggerating when I
say, I walked along the bank for a mile, and as far as I went they were
in sight as thick as anywhere, and still coming, the school being about
two feet wide.

" This river emj^ties into Matagorda Bay a short distance from where
I saw them."

Prom the fact that these young herring were discovered near the mouth
of the river ascending the stream in dense masses, one would infer that
they were the young of some anadromous species, such as the "branch"

70 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

or " glut " alewife of the Potomac, rather than of the gohleu shad of the
Mississippi Valley, which is essentially a fresh-water species. We are
not obliged to depend upon this observation of habits, however, since
a comparison of the fry with the young alewives previously mentioned
leaves little doubt as to their identity. It is probable that they were
hatched in the waters of the Gulf of Mexico adjacent to the Colorado
mouth some time in February or March of this year. It is to be hoped
that specimens of the adult alewives, and any other herring-like fishes
that may be found in the Colorado and other tributaries of the Galf,
will be secured and forwarded to Prof. S. F. Baird, United States Com-
missioner of Fish and Fisheries, Washington, D. C, in order that the
progress of introduction may become known. If those fry observed by
Mr. Selkirk are young alewives, it is almost certain that they were in-
troduced into Texas with the shad. It is well known that the newly-
hatched alewife is small enough to come in through the gauze bottom
of a hatching-box, which will not allow the escape of shad eggs or
fry. The alewife, moreover, is hatched earlier than the shad, and is
always on hand in advance to unite destinies with its larger relative,
even to the extent of being carried thousands of miles and deposited
in waters never seen by its progenitors. In this way, it seems to me,
one of the great lakes, and some of the lakes of Xew York, were stocked
with alewives in the effort to introduce shad ; at all events, they first
appeared in those waters after the attempts with shad were made.
U. S. National Museum,

Washington, May 6, 1881.

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FI.SH COMMISSION. 71

NOTEN OIV TIIE TxIFE-mSTORY OF TIIE EEL, €IfIFFL.Y DERIVED
FROiTI A STUDY OF RECENT EUROPEAN AUTHORITIES.

BY G. BROlirW OOODE.

I, Number of species of eels and the method of classification.

a. Gunther's views, h. Dareste's views.
II. Number of species of eels in America.

III. Geographical distribution of the eel.

IV. General note on habits. — Professor Baird.

V. Introduction of eels into new waters in the United States.
VI. Giinther on the life-habits of the eel.
VII. Benecke on the general natural history of the eel.
VIII. Ancient beliefs concerning the reproduction of the eel.
IX. Search for and discovery of the female eel.
X. Hunt for the male eel and discovery of Syrski.
XI. How to distinguish male and female eels.

a. Internal characteristics. — Benecke and Syrski.
h. External characteristics. — Jacoby.
XII. Questions as to the viviparous nature of eels. — Benecke.

XIII. Hunt for young eels. — Jacoby.

XIV. Undoubted normal reproductive habits of eels. — Benecke.
XV. Do male eels leave the sea and enter fresh water ?

XVI. Strange mistatements concerning the breeding of the eel.
XVII. Benecke on the movements of young eels.
XVIII. Observations of Dr. Hermes in 1881, on the conger.
XIX. Jacoby's tour to Comacchio in 1877 and his conclusions.
XX. A list of the most important books and papers concerning the eel and
its habits of reproduction.

I. Number of species of eels.

a. gunther's VIEWS.

There is no group of fishes concerning- the classification and history of
which there is so much doubt as the eel family ; an infinite number have
been described, but most are so badly characterized or founded on in-
dividual or so trivial characters that the majority of ichthyologists will
reject them.*

In his Catalogue of the Fishes in the British Museum, Dr. Giinther
has claimed to retain those as species which are distinguished by such
characters that they may be recognized, tbongh he remarks that he is by
no means certain whether really specific value should be attached to
them, remarking that the snout, the form of the eyes, the width of the
bands of teeth, &c., are evidently subject to much variation. In his
more recent work he remarks," Some twenty-five species of eels are
known from the coast waters of the temperate and tropical zones."

* Giinther, Catalogue of Fishes British Museum, viii, j). 24.

72 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

T). dareste's views.

Other recent writers have cut the knot by combining all of the eels into
three or four, or even into one, species, and it seems as if no other course
were really practicable, since the different forms merge into one another
with almost imjierceptible gradations. In his monograph of the family
of Anguilla-formed fishes* M. C. M. Dareste remarks :

" Dr. Giinther has recently published a monograph of the apodal fishes
in which he begins the work of reducing the number of specific types.
The study of the ichthyological collection of the Paris Museum, which
contains nearly all of Kaup's types, has given me the opportunity of
completing the work begun by Dr. Giinther, and of striking from the
catalogue a large number of nominal species which are founded solely
upon individual peculiarities.

" How are we to distinguish individual peculiarities from the true spe-
cific characters ? In this matter I have followed the suggestions made
with such great force by M. Siebold in his History of the Freshwater
Fishes of Central Europe. This accomplished naturalist has shown that
the relative i)roportions of the different parts of the body and the head
vary considerably in fishes of the same species, in accord ance with cer-
tain i)hysiological conditions, and that consequently they are far from
having the importance which has usually been attributed to them in
the determination of specific characters.

" The study of a very large number of individuals of the genera Conger
and AnguiUa has fully convinced me of the justice of this observation
of Siebold ; for the extreme variability of proportions forbids us to con-
sider them as furnishing true specific characters.

" I also think, with Siebold, that albinism and melanism, that is to say,
the diminution or augmentation of the number of chromatophores are
only individual anomalies and cannot be ranked as specific characters.
Eisso long since separated the black congers under the name Murcena
nigra. Kaup described as distinct species many black Anguillas. These
species should be suppressed. I have elsewhere proved the frequent
occurrence of melanism and albinism more or less complete in nearly all
the types of fishes belonging to this family, a fact especially interesting
since albinism has hitherto been regarded as a very exceptional phe-
nomenon in the group of fishes. This also occurs in the SymhrancMdce:
I have recently shown it in a specimen of Monopterus from Cochin China
presented to the museum by M. Geoffroy St. Hilaire.

"I must also signalize a new cause of multiplication of species; it is
j)artial or total absence of ossification in certain individuals. This
phenomenon, which may be explained as a kind of rachitis (rickets),
has not to my knowledge been noticed, yet I have found it in a large
number of specimens. I had prepared the skeleton of a Conger of medium
size, the bones of which are flexible and have remained in an entirely
* Comiites rendus of the Academy of Scieuces, Paris.

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 73

cartilaginous state. Still it is not necessary to prepare the skeleton to
determine tlie absence of ossification, for we can establish this easily in
unskinned specimens by the flexibility of the jaws. It is very remark-
able that this modification of the skeleton is not incompatible with
healthly existence, and that it does not prevent the fish in which it is
found from attaining a very large size.

"Those fishes in which ossification is absent are remarkable by reason
of the great reduction of the number of teeth, which, although the only
parts which become hard by the deposit of calcareous salts, remain how-
ever much smaller than in individuals whose skeletons are completely
ossified.

"We can thus understand how such specimens could present char-
acters apparently specific, and that they should have been considered
by Kaup as types of new species. These considerations have led me to
reduce, on an extensive scale, the number of species in the family.

"So, in the genus Angiiilla, I find but four species: Angmlla vulgaris
occurring throughout the northern hemisphere, in the new world as well
as the old. Anguilla marmorata and A. mowa of the Indian Ocean, and
Anguilla megalostoma of Oceanica.

"There are at least four distinct types, resulting from the combina-
tion of a certain number of characters; but the study of a very large
number of specimens belsnging to these four specific types has convinced
me that each of these characters may vary independently, and that con-
sequently certain individuals exhibit a combination of characters belong-
ing to two distinct types. It is therefore impossible to establish clearly-
defined barriers separating these four types.

" The genus AnguUla exhibits, then, a phenomenon which is also found
in many other genera, and even in the genus Homo itself, and which
can be explained in only two ways: Either these four forms have had
a common origin and are merely races, not species, or else they are dis-
tinct in origin, and are true species, but have been more or less inter-
mingled, and have produced by their mingling intermediate forms which
coexist with those which were primitive. Science is not in the position
to decide positively between these alternatives."

11. Number op species of eels in Ameri'a.

It is the disposition of American ichthyologists, at least, to accept the
views of Dareste, and to consider all the eels of the northern hemisiihere
as members of one polemori^hic si^ecies. Giinther is inclined to recog-
nize three species in i!forth America : one the common eel of Europe,
Anguilla vulgaris; one the common American eel, Anguilla. hostoniensis,
which he finds also in Japan and China; and the third, Anguilla texana,
described and illustrated by Girard, in the Eeport of the United States
and Mexican Boundary Survey, under the name of A. texana, which, he
remarks, is scarcely specifically' distinct from A. hostoniensis, from which
it differs only in the greater development of the lips. The distinction

74 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

between A. hostoniensis and A. vulgaris, as stated by him, consists
chieflj^ in the fact that the dorsal flu is sitnated a Uttle farther back
upon the body, so that in the former the distance between the com-
mencement of the dorsal and anal fin is shorter than the head, while in
the latter it is equal to or somewhat longer than it. This character does
not appear to be at all constant.

III. Geographical distribution of the eel.

"V^ e may therefore provisionally assume the specific identity of the eels
of the old and the new world, and define their distribution of the com-
mon eel somewhat as follows : In the rivers .and along the ocean shores
of Eastern North America, south to Texas and IMexico, and north at
least to the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, but absent in the waters tributary
to Hudson Bay, the Arctic Sea, and the Pacific ; present in Southern
Greenland (?) and Iceland, latitude G5° north ; on the entire coast of
Norway, from the North Cape, latitude 71°, southward; abundant in
the Baltic and in the rivers of Eussia and Germany, which are its trib-
utaries, and along the entire western and Mediterranean coasts of
Europe, though not present in the Black Sea, in the Danube or any of
its other tributaries, or in the Caspian; occurring also off Japan and
China and Formosa ; also in various islands of the Atlantic, Grenada,
Dominica, the Bermudas, Madeira, and the Azores.

IV. General note on habits. [Professor Baird.]

The habits of the eel are very different from those of any other fish,
and are as yet but little understood.

" This, so far as we know," writes Prof. Baird, '4s the only fish the
young of which ascend from the sea to attain maturity, instead of de-
scending from the fresh to the salt water. Its natural Li story has been
a matter of considerable inquiry within a few years, although even now
we are far from having that information concerning it that would be
desirable, in view of its enormous abundance and its great value as a
food fish.

" The eggs of the eel are for the most part laid in the sea, and in
the early spring, the period varying with the latitude, the young fish
may be seen ascending the rivers in vast numbers, and when arrested
by an apparently impassable barrier, natural or artificial, they will leave
the water and make their way above the obstruction, in endeavoring to
reach the point at which they aim. Here they bury themselves in the
mud and feed on any kind of animal substance, the spawn offish, the roes
of shad, small fish, &c. At the end of their sojourn in the ponds or
streams they return to the sea, and are then captured in immense num-
bers in many rivers in what are called fish-baskets. A V-shaped fence
is made, with the opening down-stream into the basket, into which the
eels fall, and from which they cannot easily escape. This same device,
it may be incidentally stated, captures also great numbers of other fish,

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 75

such as shad, salmon, and other anadroinoiis fish, to their grievous
destruction.

"As might be expected, however, the Falls of Niagara constitute an
impassable barrier to their ascent. The fish is very abundant in Lake
Ontario, and until artificiallj" introduced was unknown in Lake Erie.
At the present time, in the sirring and summer, the visitor who enters
under the sheet of water at the foot of the falls will be astonished at
the enormous numbers of young eels crawling over the slippery
rocks and squirming in the seething whirlpools. An estimate of hun-
dreds of wagon-loads, as seen in the course of the perilous journey re-
ferred to, would hardly be considered excessive by those who have vis-
ited the si)ot at a suitable season of the year.

The economical value of the eel as a lood fish has been well established,
and it is now greatly sought after for introduction into the localities where,
for some physical or other reason, it is unknown. The advantages, as
summed uj) by a German writer, are, first, that an eel will live and grow
in any water, however warm, and whatever be the general character of
the bottom, though it prefers the latter when muddy and boggy ; second,
the eel requires no special food, but devours any thing, living or dead 5
it is an excellent scavenger, feeding upon dead fish, crabs, etc., as well as
upon any living prey it can secure ; third, but few conditions can inter-
fere with its development, while it grows with very great rapidity, being
marketable at the age of three years ; fourth, the young, on account of
their hardiness, can be transported in a crowded condition, and to any
distance, with very little risk of destruction. These considerations are,
in the main, well established, and there is no question but that the eel
can be introduced in many waters to advantage, supplementing the
earlier inhabitants. It has been planted in the waters of the upper
lakes and the Mississippi River ; in the latter they have reached an ad-
vanced development. It is, however, a very undesirable inmate of rivers
in which fish are taken by means of gill-nets, the destruction of shad
and herring in the waters of the Susquehanna and others further south
being enormous. It is not unfreqnent that when a gill-net is hauled up,
the greater part of the catch consists simply of heads and backbones,
the remainder beicg devoured by myriads of eels in the short time the
net is left out. The spawning shad are considered by them a special
delicacy, and are found emi)tied at the vent and completely gutted of
the ovaries. Sometimes a shad, apparently full, is found to contain
several eels of considerable size. They do not seem to be very destruc-
tive of living fish of any magnitude, although the young fry are devoured
with gusto."*

y. Introduction of eels into new waters in the United

States.

In describing the geographical distribution of the eel it was stated
that it occurs in the rivers and along the ocean shores of North America.

* MS. note by Professor Eaircl.

76 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

This being the case, as might be supposed, there are many inland
lakes and streams of the United States in which this fish does not
occur ; for instance, in the chain of the great lakes above Niagara Falls
and in the upper waters of other streams in which there are consider-
able obstructions. The cutting of canals in various parts of the country
has, however, produced a great change in their distribution ; for in-
stance, it is stated by Mitchell * that eels were unknown in the Passaic
above the Great Falls until a canal was cut at Paterson, since which
time they have become plentiful in the upi)er branches of that river.
They have also been placed in many new localities by the agency of man.
Concerning this Mr. Milner remarks :

" The eel {Anguilla hostoniensis), appreciated in some localities and
much vilified in others, is another species that has been frequently
transplanted. It is iiretty evident that it never existed naturally in the
chain of great lakes any higher up than Niagara Falls, although speci-
mens have been taken in Lakes Erie and Michigan. Their existence
there is with little doubt traceable to artificial transportation.

"A captain of a lake vessel informed me that it was quite a common
thing some years ago to carry a quantity of live eels in a tub on the
deck of a vessel while on Lake Ontario, and they were often taken in
this manner through the Welland Canal. He said that it was a fre-
quent occurrence on his vessel when they had become tired of them, or
had procured better fishes, to turn the remainder alive into the waters of
Lake Erie.

" In 1871 Mr. A. Booth, a large dealer of Chicago, had an eel of four
pounds weight sent him from the south end of Lake Michigan, and a
few weeks afterward a fisherman of Ahneepee, Wis., nearly 200 miles
to the northward, wrote him that he had taken a few eels at that point.
It was a matter of interest to account for their presence, and a long
time afterward we learned that some parties at Eaton Rapids, Mich., on
a tributary of the lake, had imported a number of eels and put them in
the stream at that place, from which they had doubtless made their way
to the points where they were taken. The unfortunate aquarium -car in
June, 1873, by means of the accident that occurred at Elkhorn River,
released a number of eels into that stream, and about four thousand
were placed by the United States commission in the Calumet River at
South Chicago, 111., two hundred in Dead River, Waukegan, 111., and
three thousand eight hundred in Fox River, Wisconsin." t
They have since been successfully introduced into California.

YI. GUNTHER ON THE LIFE-HABITS OF THE EEL.

Concerning the life-history of the eel much has been written, and
there have been many disputes even so late as 1880. In the article upon

* Transactions Lit. and Phil. Soc. New York, I, p. 48.
t Report U. S. Fish Commission, p. 2, 1874, 526.

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 77

ichthyology, contributed to the Encyclopedia Britaunica, Giiuther
^yl■ites :

"Their mode of propagation is still unknown. So much only is certain,
that they do not spawn in fresh water; that many full-grown individ-
uals, but not all, descend rivers during the winter months, and that
some of them at least must spawn in brackish water or in dee]) water in
the sea; for in the course of the summer young individuals from 3 to 5
inches long ascend rivers in incredible numbers, overcoming all obstacles,
ascending vertical walls or flood-gates, entering every larger and swollen
tributary, and making their way even over terra firma to waters shut off
from all communication with rivers. Such emigrations have long been
known by the name '■Eel-fairs\ The majority of the eels which migrate
to the sea appear to return to fresh water, but not in a body, but
irregularly, and throughout the warmer part of the year. Xo naturalist
has ever observed these fishes in the act of spawning, or found mature
ova; and the organs of reproduction in individuals caught in fresk
water are so little developed and so much alike, that the female organ
can be distinguished from the male only with the aid of a microscope."

VII. BeNECKE on the general natural HISTORY OF THE EEL.

In attempting to j)resent a review of this subject I am sure I cannot
do better than to translate at length a communication just received from
mj- friend Dr. Berthold Benecke, professor in the University of Konigs-
berg :

"The coloration of eels varies greatly not only in different localities,
but in the very same places: the back may be dark blue or greenish
black ; the sides, lighter blue or green ; the belly, white ; sometimes the
back is only slightly darker than the sides ; sometimes there are olive
green individuals with a golden-yellow band upon their back, sometimes
they are entirely golden-yellow and, very rarely, entirely white. The
eel lives in deep quiet waters with muddy bottom; it burrows out holes
and tunnels in which it rests quietly during the day, while at night it
comes out in search of food. From^the deck of a steamer passing through
rivers or canals one may see upon the banks, which are laid bare by the
waves produced by the motion of the vessels, numerous eels with half
of their bodies projecting from their lurking holes.

"The eel feeds upon all kinds of small water-animals, and may be
found on the spawning places of other fish in great troops, going there
for the purpose of feeding upon the eggs. They feed also upon crabs at
the period when they are shedding their shells, and have in many local-
ities in Germany completely exterminated them. Since the eel is every-
where known as a greedy robber, many accounts have been given of
theu' wanderings, in which they have made their way into the pea-
patches to feed upon pease. The oldest reference of this kind is that of
Albertus Magnus, who remarks in his book of animals, published at
Frankfort- on-the-Main in 1545 : ' The eel also comes out of the water iu^

78 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION

the niglit time into tlie fields, where he can find pease, beans, or lentils.'
This statement was contradicted in 1666 by Baldner,* who writes con-
cerning the eel: 'They eat fish, do not come on the land, and do not eat
pease, but remain in the water always, and nre nocturnal animals.'

"Forthwith, new statements were made which tended to show the
actuality of the wanderings of the eels in the pea-patches. For instance,
Bach, in his ' Natural History of East and West Prussia,' published in
1784, maintained that eels frequently were caught in the pea-patches in
the vicinity of the water, where they fed upon the leaves or, according
to other accounts, ujion the pease themselves, and continues: 'These
movements explain the paradoxical fact that in Prussia and Pomerania
fish have been caught upon dry land by the use of the plough, for the
peasants, in warm nights when the eels are in search of the pease,
towards morning when it is not yet day, make furrows with the plough
between them and the water, and these are the nets in which the eels
are caught. Since the eel moves with ease only upon the grass, its
return to the water is cut off by the soil which has been thrown up.
The peasants consider it as a sign of approaching stormy weather when
the eels come out of the water upon dry land.'t

"A person writes to me from Lyck : ' In storms they come out into the
pea-patches, and at this time people spread sand or ashes around, and
thus prevent their return.' Such tales are even now numerous in the
newspai^ers.

" The small size of the gill-opening makes it possible for the eel to
live for a long time out of the water, and it is possible that in their
wanderings over moist meadows they may find places in which there
are snails and other desirable food. The explanation of their supposed
wanderings over the jjea-patches is, that the eels, wliich have been
found at different times in the fields or meadows, have been lost by
poachers, who threw them away in their flight. Many times dead eels
have been found upon meadows over which they have swam, the mead-
ows being flooded, and, in spite of the nearness of the water, have after-
wards been unable to return to it.

"Although the activity and tendency among young eels to wander is
very great, yet we cannot believe in the wandering of adult eels over
wide stretches of land. According to Si^allanzani, in Comacchio, where
for many centuries an eel fishery of immense extent has been carried on,
these fish are found in numerous ponds and lagoons, the fishermen have
never yet seen an eel wandering over the laud; and once when, on
account of the drying up of the water, the eels died by the thousand,

*Kecht natiirliche Beschreibung und Abmahlung cler Wasser-Vogel, Fischen, vier-
fussigen Thier, Insecten unci Gewirin, so bey Strassburg in den Wasseru sind, die ich
selber gescbossen und die Fisch gefangen, aucb alles in meiner Hand gebabt. Leon-
bard Baldner, Fiscber und Hagmeister in Strassburg gefertigt worden 1666. Manu
script. (Cited by von Siebold, Siisswasserfische von Mitteleuropa. Leipzig, 1863.)

t A live and active eel, a few days since, was dug out from a deptb of five feet in the
soil of Exeter, N. H. — Gloucester Telegraph, Oct. 26, 1870.

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 79

not one oi' them luade the attempt to escape by a short joiiruey over
hiud into the neighboring hxke or into the river Po.

"The eel occnrs in all our waters, with the exception of small, rapid
brooks. The fishermen distinguish many varieties based upon the dif-
ferences in the form of the head or color and the varying j)roportions
in the length of the body and tail ; and the older ichthyologists have
followed their opinions without sufficient reason.

" By rapid growth the eel attains the length of 24 to 30 inches, and
often a greater size. On account of their fat, which is very highly
flavored, and the absence of bones, they are everywhere valued, and are
caught in various ^\ ays. The most profitable method of capture is in
eel weirs and eel baskets and in traps by the use of nets, and on hooks
they are also caught in great quantities. In winter many eels are taken
with spears on the shelving shores where they lie buried in the mud in
a state of torpidity. In this fishery very often more are wounded than
captured, and, in addition to the large eels, great quantities of small
ones are taken."

VIII. Ancient beliefs concerning the reproduction of the

EEL.

The reproduction of the eel, continues Benecke, has been an unsolved
riddle since the time of Aristotle, and has given rise to the most won-
derful conjectures and assertions. Leaving out of question the old
theories that the eels are generated from slime, from dew, from horse-
hair, from the skins of the old eels, or from those of snakes, and the
question as to whether they are produced by the female of the eel or by
that of some other species of fish, it has for centuries been a question of
dispute whether the eel is an egg-laying animal or whether it produces
its young alive ; although the fishermen believe that they can tell the
male and female eels by the form of the snout. A hundred years ago
no man had ever found the sexual organs in the eel.

Jacoby has remarked that the eel was from the earliest times a riddle
to the Greeks ; while ages ago it was known by them at what periods all
other kinds of fishes laid their eggs, such discoveries were never made
with reference to the eel, though thousands upon thousands were yearly
applied to culinary uses. The Greek poets, following the usage of their
day, which was to attribute to Jupiter all children whose paternity was
doubtful, were accustomed to say that Jupiter was also progenitor of the
eel.

" When we bear in mind," writes Jacobj', " the veneration in which
Aristotle was held in ancient times, and still more throughout the mid-
dle ages — a period of nearly two thousand years — it could not be other-
wise than that this wonderful statement should be believed and that it
should be embellished by numerous additional legends and ami>lifica-
tions, many of which have held their own in the popular mind until the
present day. There is no animal concerning whose origin and existence

80 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

there is such a number of false beliefs and ridiculous fables. Some of
these may be put aside as fabrications ; others were, probably, more or
less true, but all the opinions concerning the propagation of the eel may
•be grouped together as errors into three classes :

" (I.) The beliefs which, in accordance with the description of Aris-
totle, account for the origin of the eel not by their development from
the mud of the earth, but from slimy masses which are found where the
eels rub their bodies against each other. This opinion was advanced
by Pliny, by Athenseus, and by Oppian, and in the sixteenth century
was again advocated by Rondelet and reiterated by Conrad Gessner.

"(II.) Other authorities base their claims upon the occasional dis-
covery of worm -like animals in the intestines of the eels, which they
described, with more or less zealous belief, as the young eels, claiming
that the eel should be considered as an animal which brought forth its
young alive, although Aristotle in his day had pronounced this belief
erroneous, and very rightly had stated that these objects were probably
intestinal worms. Those who discovered them anew had no hesitation
in j)ronouncing them young eels which were to be born alive. This
opinion was tirst brought up in the middle ages in the writings of
Albertus Magnus, and in the following centuries by the zoologists Leu-
wenhoek, Eisner, Eedi, and Fahlberg -, even Linnseus assented to this
belief and stated that the eel was viviparous. It is but natural that
unskilled observers, when they open an eel and find inside of it a greater
or smaller number of living creatures with elongated bodies, should be
satisfied, without further observation, that these are the young of the
eel ; it may be distinctly stated, however, that in all cases where eels of
this sort have been scientifically investigated, they have been found to
be intestinal worms.*

"(III.) The last group of errors includes the various suppositions that
eels are born not from eels, but from other fishes, and even from animals
which do not belong at all to the class of fishes. Absurd as this sujiijo-
sition, which, in fact, was contradicted by Aristotle, may seem, it is
found at the present day among the eel-catchers in many parts of the
world.

" On the coast of Oermany a fish related to the cod, Zoarces vivipariiSy
which brings its young living into the world, owes to this circumstance
its name Allmuter, or eel mother, and similar names are found on the
coast of Scandinavia."

" In the lagoon of Comacchio," continues Jacoby, " I have again con-
vinced myself of the ineradicable belief among the fishermen that the
eel is born of other fishes ; they point to special differences in color,

* It is very strange that an observer, so careful as Dr. Jacoby, should denounce in
this connection the well-known error of Dr. Eberhard, of Eostock, who mistook a
species of zoarces for an eel, and described the young, which he found alive within
the body of its mother, as the embryo of the eel. In Jacoby's essay, p. 24, he states
that the animal described by Eberhard was simply an intestinal worm, an error which
will be manifest to all who will take the pains to examine the figure.

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 81

and especially in the common mnllett. Mugil cephahis, as the causes of
variations in color and form among eels. It is a very ancient belief,
widely prevalent to the present day, that eels pair with water snakes.
In Sardinia the fishermen cling to the belief that a certain beetle, the
so-called water-beetle, JDytiscus Roeselilj is the progenitor of eels, and
they therefore call this 'mother of eels.'"

IX. — Search for and discovery of the female eel.

A scientific investigation into the generation of eels could only begin
when, at the end of the middle ages, the prohibition which the venera-
tion for Aristolte had thrown over the investigations of learned men
was thrown aside. With the revival of the natural sciences in the six-
teenth century we find that investigators turned themselves with great
zeal to this special question. There are treatises upon the generation
of the eel written by the most renowned investigators of that period, such
as Kondelet, Sahiani, and Aldrovandi. Nevertheless, this, like the fol-
lowing century, was burdened with the memory of the numerous past
opinions upon the eel question, and with the supposed finding of young
inside the body of the eel.

The principal supjjorters of the theory that the eel was viviparous,
were Albertus Magnus, Leeuweuhoek, Eisner, Eedi, and Fahlberg. The
naturalists, Franz Eedi and Christian Franz Paullini, who lived in the
seventeenth century, must be mentioned as the first who were of the
opinion, founded, however, upon no special observations, that the gen-
eration of the eel was in no respect different from that of other fishes.

In the eighteen century it was for the first time maintained that the
female organs of the eel could certainly be recognized. It is interesting
that the lake of Comacchio was the starting point for this conclusion as well
as for many of the errors which had preceded it. The learned surgeon,
Sancassiui, of Comacchio, visiting an eel fishery at that place in 1707,
found an eel with its belly conspicuously enlarged ; he opened it and
found an organ resembling an ovary, and, as it appeared to him, ripe
eggs. Thereupon he sent his find, properly preserved, to his friend, the
celebrated naturalist, Valisneri, jjrofessor in the university of Padua,
who examined it carefully and finally, to his own great delight, became
satisfied that he had found the ovaries of the eel. He prepared an
elaborate communication upon the subject, which he sent to the Academy
at Bologna.*

At the very beginning there were grave questions raised as to the
correctness of this discovery. The principal anatomical authority at
Bologna, Professor Valsalva, appears to have sbared these doubts,
especially since shortly after that a second specimen of eel, which pre-

* I fail to find any record of the publication of this paper, except that given by
Jacoby, who states that it was printed at Venice in 1710 with a plate, and subse-
quently, in 1712, under the title " Di ovario Anguillaruui," in the proceedings of the
Leopold Academy.

Bull. TJ. S. F. C, 81 6

82 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

sented the same appearance as tliat wliicli was described by Yallisneri,
was sent from Comacchio to Bologna. The discussion continued, and
it soon came to be regarded by the scientific men of Bologna as a mat-
ter of extreme importance to find the true ovaries of the eel. Pietro
Molinelli offered to the fishermen of Comacchio a valuable reward if
they would bring liim a gravid eel. In 1752 he received from a fisher-
man a living eel with its belly much extended, which, when opened in
the presence of a friend, he found to be filled with eggs. Unfortunately
the joyful hoj)es which had been excited by this fortunate discovery
were bitterly disappointed when it was shown that the eel had been
cunningly opened by the fisherman and filled with the eggs of another
fish. The eel question came up again with somewhat more satisfactory
results wheu, in the year 1777, another eel was taken at Comacchio
which showed the same appearance as the two which had preceded it.
This eel was received by Prof. Cajetan Monti, who, being indisposed
and unable to carry on the investigation alone, sent a number of his
favorite pupils to a council at his house, among whom was the cele-
brated Camillo Galvani, the discoverer of galvanism. This eel was ex-
amined by them all and j)ronounced to be precisely similar to the one
which had been described by Vallisneri seventy years before. It was
unanimously decided that this precious specimen should be sent for ex-
haustive examination to the naturalist Mondini, who api)lied himself
with great zeal to the task, the results of which were published in May,
1777. The i)aper is entitled "De Anguillne ovariis," and was published
six years later in the transactions of the Bologna Academy.* Mondini
was satisfied that the supposed fish which Vallisneri described was
nothing but the swimming bladder of the eel in a diseased state, and
that the bodies supposed to be eggs were simply i^ostules in this dis-
eased tissue. In connection with this opiuion, however, Mondini gave,
and illustrated by magnificent plates, a good description and demon-
stration of the true ovaries of the eel, as found by himself. This work,
which in its beautiful i^lates illustrates also the eggs in a magnified fold
of the ovary, must be regarded as classical work, and it is an act of
historic justice to state that neither O. F. Miiller nor Rathke, but really
Carlo Mondini was the fiist discoverer, describer, and demonstrator of
the female organs of the eel, which had been sought for so many cen-
turies.!

* De Bonouien.si Scieutarum et Arterium Institute atque Academia Commentarii.
Tomns VI. Bonoui;e, 1783, p. 406, seq.

t Prof. G. B. Ercolaui, of Bologua, and also Crivelli and Maggi, iu Llieir essays pub-
lished in 1872, have rightly stated that Mondini's priority of discovery has been over-
looked in Germany. Neither Rathke nor Hohnbaum-Hornschech nor Schliiser have
mentioned his work. S. Nillson, in his Skaudinavisk Fauna, 1855, says nothing of
Mondini. He mentioned as the first discoverer of the ovaries O. F. Miiller, while
Cuvier, in his "Historie Maurelle do Poissons," assigning the honor rather to Rathke.
Th. von Siebold is the first to announce in his work, published iu 1863, Die Susswas-
serfischo Von Mitteluropa, page 349, that Mondini, almost contemporaneously with

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 83

Three years later, entirely independent of Moudini, the celebrated
zoologist, Otto Friedrich iMiiller, published his discovery of the ovary
of the eel in the "Proceedings of the Society of Xaturalists," at Berlin.*

The discovery of Mondini was next specially bronght into prominence
through Lazzaro Spallanzani. This renowned investigator, in October,
1792, went from Pavia to the lagoons of the Po, near Comacchio, for the
sole purpose of there studying the eel question. He remained at
Comacchio through the autumn ; he was, however, unable to find any-
thing that was new regarding the question, but in the report upon his
journey of investigation he entirely threw aside the discovery of Mon-
dini, and announced that the ovaries discovered by this authority were
simply fatty folds of the lining of the stomach.t

It was without doubt this absolute negative statement of such a
skilled investigator as Spallanzani which for a long time discouraged
further investigations on the eel question, and allowed what had al-
ready been discovered to be regarded as doubtful, as finally to be for-
gotten. So when Professor Rathke, of Konigsberg, in his assiduous
labors upon the reproductive organs of fishes, in the year 1824, described
the ovaries of the eel as two cuff and collar shaped organs on both
sides of the backbone, and in the year 1838 described them as new, he
was everywhere in Germany (and to a large extent to the present day)
regarded as the disco verer.t The first i^icture of the ovary after that of
Mondini, and the first microscopical plate of the egg of the eel
Hohnbaum-Hornschuch presented in a dissertation published in 1842 —
a paper which should be rightly considered as of great importance in
the literature of this question. The questions concerning the ovaries
of the eel may be regarded as having been brought to a distinct conclu-
sion by Rathke, who, in the j ear 1850, published an article describing
a gravid female eel, the first and only gravid specimen which had, up to
that time, come into the hands of an investigator.

O. F. Miiller, and independently from him, discovered the ovaries of the eel. The
error, as was discovered by Italian zoologists later than by those of Germany, arose
from the fact that the announcement of Miiller's discovery was printed in 1780, while
that of Mondini, which was made in 1777, was first printed in 1783.

*0. F. Miller, Bemiihungen, bei den Intestinal Wurmern

i Bathke, who first, since Mundini, has in detail described (1824, 1838, and 1850) the
ovaries of the eel, is considered by some to have recognized them; but this, however,
is not true, the additions made by him to Mundini's description being to a great
extent erroneous. It is not true that the transverse leaflets are Avauting in the ovaries
of the eel, as he asserts in his last work, contrary to his former description, which was
probably based on the law of analogy, and that thereby they are distinguished from
those of the salmon and sturgeon. It is not true, what Rathke likewise asserts, that
the genital opening of the eel consists of two small canals, for I have invariably only
found one, which opens in the urethra. Rathke has >ertainly described the eggs quite
exactly, distinguishing the larger whitish ones, having a diameter of about one-
fifteenth of a line, and the smaller transparent ones, with the germinal vesicle inside ;
but Mundini likewise says : '^innumeras sphwnilas minimus, cequales, pellucidas, divisas
tamen, qnoe in centra macidam ostendebant, ecc. vidi,"' thus showing the true nature of the
ovaries and the eggs, and contrasting them with the fatty formation and with the
ovaries and eggs of other osseous fish." (Syrski.)

84 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

X. Hunt for the male eel and its discovery by Syrski,

The history of the search for the female of the eel having been given,
for the most part, in a translation of the work of Dr. Jacob.y, it seems
appropriate to quote the same author concerning the search for the
male eel, which, though much shorter, is none the less interesting.

In the dissertation of Hohubaum-Hornschuch, published in 1842, the
opinion was expressed that certain cells found by the author in the
ovaries which differed from the egg cells by their form and contents,
should be regarded as the siiermary cells of the eel, and that the eel
should be regarded as hermaphrodite. Six years later Schliiser i>re-
sented an interesting dissertation upon the sexes of lampreys and eels
in which he pronounced these opinions of Hobnbaum-Hornschuch to
be erroneous, and expressed the oi^inion that the male eel must be ex-
tremely rare, or that it was dilierent, perhaps, from the female. From
this time up to the beginning of 1870 a male eel was never seen, nor do
we find any opinions expressed concerning the form of the male of the
eel or its reproductive organs.*

According to Eobin in 18-46, George Louis Duvernoy (Cuvier, An
atomic Comparee, ed. 2, 1848, tome viii, p. 117) described the ruftie-tube
tyi^e of the testis of the lampreys and eels, with the free margin fes-
tooned in lobules, shorter to the right than to the left, like the ovaries,
&c. He added: "At the breeding season, we perceive in it an innumer-
able quantity of granulations, or small spermatic capsules, the rounded
form of which has often led to their being confounded with the ovules,
at least in the eels, in which, in reality, these capsules are nearly of the
same size as the ovules, but the latter are distinguished by their oval
form." The ovules are spherical, and not oval; but the other facts are
fundamentally correct. It is also in error that Duvernoy adds (p. 133) :
"The eels and the lampreys have no deferent canal, any more than an
oviduct. Like the ova the semen ruptures the capsules in which it has
collected and diffuses itself in the abdominal cavity, whence it is ex-
pelled in the same way as in the ova."

By some droll coincidence the university of Bologna aud, soon after,
that of Pavia, were again prominent participants in the eel tournament.
At the meeting of the Bologna Academy, December 28, 1871, Prof.
G. B. Ercolaui read a pajier ui^on the perfect hermaphroditism in the
eel.t

Fourteen days later Prof. Balsamo Crivelli and L. Maggi read a
detailed and elaborate paper upon the "true organs of generation in

* Robin, Comptes Rendus, 1881, p. 383.

t Jacoby states that in a paper by Eathke, published in 1838 in the Archivfur naturge-
scMchfe, he remarked, " I expect soon to be able to say something concerning the male
organs of the eel."

It would be very interesting to know whether in the papers left by this skillful in-
vestigator there may not have been recorded some valuable observations concerning
the male eel.

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 85

eels." These- investigators, without coucerted action, had all at once
brought uj) the celebrated issue of the previous century ; this time,
however, having specially in view the male organs of the eel, while all
were convinced that they had reached a final result by their investi-
gations. The results were certainly very peculiar. In the paper of
Ercolaui it was claimed that the snake-like folds of fat, which had
formerly been noticed near the ovarium, were nothing else than the
spermaries of the eel, and that upon the left side of the animal this
organ developed into a true testicle, while the one upon the right side
shrank up and became functionless. In the work of Crivelli and Maggi,
on the other hand, the folds of fat next to the ovary were also con-
sidered to be the male organs of the eel, while the one on the right-
hand side of the animal was considered without any doubt to be the
male reproductive organ. The last-named authorities described the
spermatozoa which they had seen in this stripe of fat upon the right
side. Since these stripes of fat were universally found in all eels, and
always in connection with the former, the investigators could come to
no other conclusion than that the eels were complete hermaphrodites.

The male organ of the eel, as described by Ercolani, as also by
Crivelli and Maggi, shows how carefully investigations may be ex-
pended upon things which are not in the least equivocal, since there
was not the slightest trace of structure like that of a spermary. The
cells of this body in the lining of the stomach next to the ovary are
simply fat cells, with all the characteristic peculiarities, just as they are
given in all the manuals of histiology. Professor Eauber, of Leipsic
has examined these fat cells carefully, and they have also been investi-
gated in many eels by the writer. Dr. Jacoby. Never has anything but
fat cells and blood vessels been found in them. The so-called sperma-
tozoa, described in the work of Maggi and Crivelli, proved to be micro-
scopic fat particles or crystalline bodies, such as are commonly found
in fat cells. *

In the meantime, at Trieste, the question concerning the male organs
of the eel was making a very important advance. Darwin had already
expressed the opinion that among nearly all fishes the female was larger
than the male. He states that Dr. Giinther had assured him that there was
not a single instance among fishes in which the male was naturally larger
than the female. This opinion may, perhaps, have induced Dr. Syrski,
director of the Museum of National History at Trieste, now i^rofessor in
the university of Lemberg, when he undertook, at the request of the
marine officials of Trieste, the determination of the spawning time of the
fish which were caught in that region, and was obliged to take up the
eel question, to devote his attention especially to the smaller eels. Dr.

* lu a microscopic investigation of fatty tissnes it is very easy for the so-called
Brownian molecular movements to be mistaken for moving spermatozoa, especially in
fishes whose spermatozoa, if not very much magnified, show only the head and appear
like little bodies globular in form.

86 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

Hermes, in behalf of Dr. Syrski, protests against this idea, stating, on
the authority of the latter, that the i^ublished opinions of Giinther and
Darwin were unknown to him prior to the publication of Jacoby's paper.
Up to that time every investigator had choseu for investigation the
largest and fattest of eels, thinking that the largest and oldest specimens
must have the most highly-developed organs of generation. On Xov.
vembr eliO, 1873, Syrski found in the second specimen which he investi-
gated— an individual 15 inches long, which is now preserved in the
museum at Trieste — a completely new organ, which had never before been
seen within the eel by any former investigator, although teus of thousands
of eels had been zealously studied.* Syrski published his discovery
in the April number of the proceedings of the Imperial Academy of
Sciences, Vienna, in 1874.t The most important point of the discovery
was stated to be that in all the sj)ecimens of eels in which the Syrskian
organ was fouDd, the well known collar- and-cuft' shaped ovary, the
female organ of generation, was entirely wanting. It was evident from
this that eels were not hermaphrodites. The question now arose, is the
newly discovered organ in the eel, in its external form, as well as inner
structure, so different from the ovary that it could be considered as a
partially developed or peculiarly shrunken ovary ? According to all re-
searches which have up to this time been made, there is the highest kind
of probability that this newly discovered structure is actually the long
sought male organ of generation. The investigator cannot, however,
answer this question with complete certainty, since the thing which is
most necessary to the solution of this question, namely, the huding and
the recognition of the spermatozoa, has not yet been accomplished.

In February, 1879, Professor Packard announced the discovery of
spermatozoa in eels from Wood's Holl, Mass., but soon after declared
that this was a mistake, and that he had been deceived by molecular
movements among tbe yolk nuclei in the female organs. The discovery
of spermatozoa in the spermaries of the conger-eel, recently announced
by Dr. Hermes, of Berlin, is, however, suflicient to demonstrate fully
the correctness of Syrski's theory. The confirmation in the case of the
common eel is solely a matter of time.

XI. How TO DISTINGUISH MALE AND FEMALE EELS.
a. INTERNAL CHARACTERISTICS. — BENECKE.

The differences between the organs of sex in the eel are well described
by Benecke. The ovaries of the eel are two yellowish or reddish- white

* "I commenced ray investigations," writes Syrski, "on the 29tli November last
year (1873), and already in the second eel which I dissected on that day I found the
testicles, and therefore a male individual of the eel. I sent in March of the following
year (1874) to the Academy of Sciences in Vienna a preliminary communication,
which was read at the public session held the I5th April, and printed in the reports
of the academy."

tin 1875, Professor Von Siebold found male eels in the Baltic at Wismar, although
this discovery was not at that time made known to the public. They have siuce
been found in the German Ocean, in the Atlantic, and in the Mediterranean.

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 87

elongate organs as broad as one's finger, situated alongside of the back-
bone, arranged in nunierons transverse folds, extending through the
entire length of the abdominal cavity. They liave no special opening
to the outside of the body, and their contents must be discharged into
the abdominal cavity and must find exit through the very small opening
situated behind the anus. These two bodies, on account of their great
size, are of course not easily overlooked, but they contain such a great
quantity of fatty cells and the eggs imbedded in them are so small and
delicate that one might easily believe, even after a superficial micro-
scopic examination, that the whole organ consists only of fat. AYhile
the eggs of other fishes measure from one to three millimeters in diam-
eter— and sometimes are much larger^still the eggs in the ovary of
the eel have, on an average, a diameter of about .1 millemeter, and are
so closely surrounded by fatty cells with outlines mu<;h more strongly
marked that it requires great skill to i)repare a microscopic slide in
which thej' shall be as plainly visible as they are in the accompanying
illustration, in which they are magnified 150 diameters. When a jierson
has a microscope which magnifies only 100 diameters, it is best to i)ut a
portion of the ovary in water when dissecting it, in order that the eggs
may be easily found. It is much easier to find the eggs in young eels,
7 or 8 inches in length, than in the adult fish, since in the former,
although the ovaries and the eggs are smaller, the fat cells have not
made their appearance, and the eggs are, therefore, plainly visible at
the first glance through the microscope. The number of eggs is extra-
ordinarily large, amounting to many millions. The eggs of larger size,
which sometimes are found in great quantities in eels that have been
cut up and have been considered to be eel eggs, have always proved to
be the eggs of other fish which they have swallowed, and in the course
of cutting them up have been found in the eel's belly.

The male eels, which are found only in the sea and in the brackish
water, are much smaller than the females, rarely exceeding 15 or 16
inches in length; in them, in the place of the ovaries in the female, are
found sperraaries, which differ in appearance in the manner shown in
the illustration. These consist of two tubes which stretch the whole
length of the body cavity, situated close to each other, and provided
with numerous sacculations. Eii)e si^ermatozoa are as rarely found in
these organs as eggs ready to be laid have been found in the ovaries of
the female. According to many accounts the male eels, which later
were found also by Yon Siebold in the Baltic Sea at Wismar, differ
from the females in the possession of a proportionally sharper snout,
less conspicuous dorsal fins, darker colonation of the back, a more
prominent and metallic luster upon the sides, the clean white coloration
of the belly, and the larger size of the eyes. I proiiose to reproduce
here the original descriptions and figures of Syrski, the discoverer of
the male eel.

Having met, writes Syrslii, with many errors regarding the female

88 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

organs of reproduction in the descriptions hitherto given of them, I in-
tend to commence by describing these organs, first, with the view of
rectifying and completing the details, and also for the purpose of com-
parison with the male organs.

The ovaries of the eel. — These organs (tig. IG), two in number, are rib-
bon-shaped, with leaflets on their outer face, and with transverse folds.
In the natural position of the live fish, the one extends to the left and
the other to the right of the alimentary tube, following most of its angles
nearly the whole length of the abdominal cavity to the place where the
dorsal i^arietes is confluent with the lateral.

The right ovary commences at a point nearly corresftonding to that
■where on the outside the right pectoral fin ends, and the left ovary com-
mences about two centimeters and ends three to four centimeters behind
the former. They extend three to six centimeters back of the anus,
into the caudal part of the animal's body ; they do not, however, unite
in a single body, as some have asserted, but both are toward the end
inclosed in a peritoneal membrane, and are separated from each other
by the union of these membranes, having each on their inner face an ac-
cessory ovary {]^ars recurrens ovarii). In rare cases is such an accessory
ovary wanting either on the right or on the left side.

The ovaries in fully-grown eels are in the middle about two centimeters
larger, and i)osteriorly terminate in a thread-like form. They are not
smooth on both sides, but have, as was said above, on their outer side
numerous transverse folds (fig. 2) full of eggs (fig. 3).

It is another of Eathke's erroneous assertions, likewise maintained
by others, that the genital opening through which the eggs pass out
from the abdominal cavity is formed by two holes, a right one and a left
one. I have invariably found in all specimens examined a simj)le hole,
which communicated with the right and left half of the abdominal cav-
ity by means of a transverse fissure between the straight intestine and
the urinary bladder [fissura recto-vesicalis) and opens in the urethra

(fig- 4).

It is generally admitted that the eggs, when loosened from the ova-
ries, fall indiscriminately into the abdominal cavity, but it is not said
which way they take in order to go out through the genital aperture.
As I have invariably found that the fully-developed ovaries lean with
their outer surface against the side of the abdominal cavity, and approach
with their free edges the lower portion of this side, forming, so to speak,
a furrow, I must conclude that the loosened eggs descend between the
abdominal j)artition and the folds and leaflets of the ovary in the above-
mentioned furrow, and from it pass to the genital aperture without
scattering in the abdominal cavity.

As to the development which the ovaries undergo, I have observed,
from the end of November till the beginning of March, in many adult
eels, of the length of 530 millimeters and more, that the ovaries were of
the breadth of 15 to 25 millimeters, and of a yellowish and sometimes

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 89

ff^to.

v.—

.«—

m

Fig. 2. Piece of the ovary, twiceits natural size, vnthova-
rian leaflets arranged in transversal roxvs, on
its outer surface.
The shorter border attached to the dorsal -wall
of the abdominal cavity; the longer being
free.

---o>

'T^

— 8

-■«

Fig. 3. Piece of a somewhat developed ovary, one hun-
dred times the natural size, showin'i the trans-
parent eggs loith the germinative vescicles ayid
the germinative dots.

Fig. 1. Female eel, longitudinal section of the
abdomen; natural size.

a. Right ovary.

b. Lett ovary.

c. Accessory part of the right ovary.

d. Left accessory part.

e. Dividing membrane.
/. Anal depres.sion.

g. Urinary bladder.

h. Fat on the right side, erroneously

taten for the testicles by some.
h'. Similar fat covering the stomach.
i. Fat on the left side.
k. Stomach.
I. Pylorus.
m. Liver.
n. Gall-bladder.
00. Pectoral fins.

? /

a

Fig. 4. Anal part of a female eel, ttvice the natural size.

a. Straight intestine.

b. Fissura recto -vesicalis.

c. Urinary bladder.

d. Annus.

e. Partition.

/. Uro-genital opening.

g. Outlet of the genital opening in the uretha.

90

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

fg-

;^'.

(O — I

— »-.

reddish-white color, i)roduced by the dev^op-
ment of adipose tissues and of the blood-ves-
sels, and not by the eggs filled with little glob-
ules of fat ; the genital aperture and thejissura
recto-vesicalis were open.

In other eels of a length sometimes of 600
millimeters and more, I found the ovaries less
broad, with but little fat, and of a mucous and
almost glassy appearance, so that I could dis-
cern the so-called vesicles and germinative dots
{nuclei and nucleoli) ; the genital aperture and
the Jissura recto-vesicalis were closed.

The ovaries of young eels, of the length of
about 500 millimeters, contained invariably but
little fat, and the eggs were without globules.
The gradual growth and enlargement of the
ovaries go on simultaneously with the opening
of the genital orifice. According to the quan-
tity of fat contained in the ovaries, they have a
mucous and glassy, or more or less opaque or
white, aj^pearance, or have small shining white
dots. From the end of March till October, I
found in the majority of eels which I examined,
measuring 600 to 700 millimeters in length, that
the ovaries were scarcely white, and that the
genital aperture was closed. The number of
eggs contained in both developed ovaries
reaches, according to my calculation, five mill-
ions. The larger eggs measured by me had a
diameter of one-fourth to one fifth millimeter,
while the eggs of an adult " grougo" {Conger)
had, according to my measurements, a diameter
of one-third of a millemeter, and those of the
" murena " {Murcena lielena) almost one mil-
limeter, which explains to me why the ovaries
of the two last-mentioned species of fish have
long since become known.

In an eel measuring 590 millimeters, exam-
ined on the 6th July, the left ovary was en-
nai pouch, k. Fat on the ^Ib't tlrcly wautiug, aud replaced by a mass of fat.

side. k' . SiniiUir fat roverinfj the
stomach. I. Fat ou the left side.
m. Stomach. n. Pylorus. o.

liiver, turned up to show the inner
surface adhcriiiir to the cesophagus
and the .stomach. p. Gall-bald-
der. qq. Pectoral fiua.

.1

Fig. 5. Male eel {natural size) .

a. Eightteisticle. b. Left testi-
cle, c. Right accessorj- part. d.
Left accessory part. e. Dividing
membrane. /. Deferent canal.

g. Seminal pouch. h. Anal de-

pression, i. Urinary bladder, cov-
ered to a great extent by the semi-

Tlie S2)ermatic organs. — The position of these
organs (fig. 5), which are not ribbon-shaped
like the ovaries, but represent two longi-

tudinal rows each with about fifty lobules
(fig. 6) of the width at most of three millimeters, and found only in
eels not more than 430 millimeters long, corresponds entirely with that

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

91

of the ovaries. In tliese organs are likewise found, toward the i^osterior
end, the spermatic organs {partes recurrentes), which, however, as is the
case with the ovaries, are sometimes wanting.

The spermatic organs can be distinguished at the first glance from the
ovaries of the adult eels and those of the youug eels, not only by their
lobular form, but also by their shining glassy appearance, by the surface
of the individual lobes, which is smooth and without leaflets, and by the
much greater density of the tissue, so that with a pair of pincers one
can take ofi' a large portion of the organ, which could not possiblj^ be
done svith a more developed ovary whose tissue is as tender as a cob-
web, and is composed of small vessels formed of a thin membrane and
filled with eggs and fat.

The fibrous tissue of the spermatic organs is composed of vascular
compartments with thicker partitions, inclosing, according to the devel-
opment of the organ, granular globules (fig. 7).

Fig. 6. Three lobes of the right testicle, ivith the deferent canal (enlarged ten times.)
a. Lobes, seen from their outer surface.
h. Lobe, seen from its inner surface.

c. Deferent canal.

d. Anterior part of the same.

•

These comjiartments are joined toward the inside and the base of the
lobes, which are united to a tube {vas deferens)^ which, cpecal at the com-
mencement, runs along the entire length of the abdominal cavity, and
opens near the straight intestine {rectum) in a triangular pouch, which
likewise contains a vas deferens starting from the caudal part of the
spermatic organ. This pouch has its outlet in the general orifice, which
opens in the urethra (fig. 8).

As regards the development of the spermatic organs, I have observed
that the lobes of these organs in young eels, measuring not more than
200 to 300 millimeters in length, are not yet very distinct, forming two
thin ribbons differing but little from ovaries of the female in their aver-
age size. In eels measuring about 400 millimeters in length, the testi-
cles can easily be distinguished from the ovaries. The former, much
straighter, and with tissue, as has been already remarked, much more
solid, are provided with a much more developed net-work of vessels;
their lobes are very distinct and the deferent canals are usually open,
while the ovaries present the appearance- of two continuous ribbons,

92

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

have a more delicate tissue, and an almost mucous appearance, and con-
tain the eggs with the germinative vesicles.

The deferent canals and the genital orifice are closed in young eels of
the male sex, and open simultaneously with the development of the lobes.

In the male eels examined by me from March to October, I have found
individuals of 400 millimeters and more in length, whose genital orifice
and deterent canals were invariably open, while in some of the smaller
ones they were closed and in others open.

^'■■■A^.^L v^r- >'^^' ■^''^■' ■ .^ "■■'■/.,>;>;

.U^v..."

f a h

Pig. 7. Piece of the testicle (one hundred and
sixty times enlarged), showing the
vascular tissue and the bmall granules.

Fig. 8. Anal jjart of the male eel, enlarged twice,
a. Straight intestine.
6. Fissura recto-vesicalis, covered by the outside

wall of the seminal pouch.
cc. Outlet of the anterior and posterior part of

the deferent canal in the pouch.
d. Urinary bladder.

Of the 258 eels examined by me, the males and females were in about
even proportion; the greatest length of the former was about 430 milli-
meters, while the latter were of all sizes up to 1,050 millimeters, which
shows that the males are smaller than the females.

b. EXTERNAL CHARACTERISTICS. — JACOBY.

The external differences presented by living eels (remarks Jacoby),
corresponding to the presence of an ovary and the supposed male organ,
are very interesting.

The most important, writes Jacoby, is (1) the difference in the size and
length of the animal. Syrski states that the largest eels found by him
with the supi)osed male organ measured about 17 inches, 430'""\ I have,
however, found specimens with this organ at Trieste and in Comacchio
which measured 17 to 19 inches, 450 to 480^°™. All the eels which ex-
ceeded this size, for instance those which were over 3 feet in length,
1™, many of them growing to the thickness of the arm of a strong man,
have been hitherto found to be females. The other recognizable ex-
ternal character in the female are (2) a much broader tip of the snout
in comparison with the small, either attenuated or short and sharply
pointed, snout of the eel with the supposed male organ; also (3) a clearer
coloration in the female, usually of a greenish hue on the back, and
yellowish or yellow upon the belly, while the others have a deep darkish

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION

93

green, or often a very deep black upon the back and always a more per-
ceptible metallic luster upon the sides (I, once in a while, found eels
covered all over with a brownish tint, always possessing the organ
of Syrski), usually exhibiting also a white color ui)on the belly. In
addition (4) there is an important external character in the height of
the dorsal fin ; all females have these fins much higher and broader than
the eels of the same size which possess the supposed male organ. Finally
(5) there is a character, which is not always a safe one, in the greater
diameter of the eye in the eels with the supposed male organ. Eels with
quite small eyes are almost always found to be females ; eels with the
organ of Syrski usually have comparatively large eyes, yet female eels
with quite large eyes are not unusual.

The following proportional measurements, the average results of the
study of a great number of eels measured by me, will be of general in-
terest ; column a gives the total length of the eel ; b the breadth of
the snout between the nostrils ; c the breadth of the snout between the
eyes; d the length of the snout from the center of the eye to its tip;
€ the average measurement of the eyes ; / the length of the head to
the gill-opening ; g the height of the dorsal fins, all the measurements
being given in millimeters.

A

. Eels with supposed male organ.

B. Female eels.

a.

6.

c.

d.

e.

/•

9-

a.

6.

c.

d.

e.

/•

9-

I

480

6

13.5

15

8

52

5

480

8.5

12

17

5

62

9

I

n

470

6

10.5

12

7

54

6

475

7.5

14.5

16

8

59

9.5

n

ni

445

5

11

12

6

47

6

440

8

12

14

5

56

7.5

ILL

IV

411

4

9

12

5.5

47

6

410

8

12.5

13

7.5

51

7

VI

V

386

4.5

9

12

5.5

46

4

378

7.5

11

12

5

49

7.5

V

VI

370

3.5

7

10.5

5

40

6

369

7.5

11

13

6.5

51.5

7

VI

Vil

344

4

7.5

10

4.5

40

5

342

6

8

11

4.5

44

6.5

VII

VIII

319

4

7

10

5

40

4.5

313

5.5

8

10.5

3.5

41

6

VIII

According to the distinguishing marks which have been given, special
reference having been paid to the height and narrowness of the dorsal
fin, much success has been met with in picking out, in the fish-market
of Trieste, the eels which possessed the organ of Syrski ; absolute cer-
tainty in recognizing them cannot, however, be guaranteed. If one is
searching among living eels with no characters in mind with the excep-
tion of the first — that of length — he will find in every ten eels, on an
average, eight females, and two with the sujiposed male organ; but, if
the selection is made with a careful reference to all these marks of difier-
ence, the proportion changes, and out of every ten examples about eight
will be found with the supi)osed male organ.

For another excellent discussion with figures of the characters of
male and female eels, the reader is referred to a translation of an article
by S. Th. Cattie, in the Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum, vol.
iii, pp. 280-4.

94 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

XII. Question as to the viviparous nature of eels, — Benecke.

The discovery of the two sexes has not, however, writes Benecke, set-
tled the question whether the eel lays eggs or brings its young alive into
the world. There has always been a strong disposition to adopt the latter
hypothesis, and there are many people at the present day who claim to
have been present at the birth of young eels, or to have found a quantity
of young eels in adult eels which have been cut open. Frequently ichthy-
ologists hear accounts of occurrences of this kind, and receive specimens
of supposed little eels from one to two inches in length, which have beeu
kept alive for several days in a glass of water. These are usually thread
worms, Ascaris libeata, which live by the hundi^ed iu the intestinal cavity
of the eel, and which may be easily distinguished from the eels of the same
size by the sharp ends of the body, the absence of lins, of eyes and mouth,
and by the sluggishness of their motions. The smallest eels, less than
an inch in length, have already the complete form of the adult, and are
also transpareut, so that with a magnifying glass one may perceive the
pulsations of the heart, and see behind it the brownish-red liver; the
mouth, the pectoral, dorsal, anal, and caudal fins are easily seen, and
the black eyes cannot be overlooked. In addition to the intestinal
worms, the young of a fish of another family, Zoarces viinparus, have
given opportunity to the ignorant for many discoveries ; for instance,
Dr. Eberhard, in No. 4 of the " Gartenlaube" for 1874, described and illus-
trated an '' embryo of the eel," which, in company with about a thou-
sand similar embryos, had been cut out of the belly of an eel. This
tolerably good drawing at first sight is seen to represent the embryo of
zoarces which is almost ready for birth, since it still possesses a very
minute umbilical sac. It is very evident that the minute egg of the eel
could hardly produce a great embryo with an umbilical sac which exceeds
by more than a hundred times in size the whole egg. It is also evident
that the imagination of the writer had exaggerated the 200 or 300 young
in the Zoarces to a thousand.

XIII. Hunt foe young eels.— Jacoby.

As might have been foreseen, remarks Jacoby, Syrski's discovery
drew attention anew to the solution of the eel problem. In the spring
and summer of 1877, the German and Austrian papers and journals were
full of articles and paragraphs upon this subject. Among others the
following announcement made the rounds of the press : " Hitherto, in spite
of all efforts, science has not succeeded iu discovering the secret of the
reproduction of the eel. The German Fischerei- Verein in Berlin offers a
premium of oO marks to the person who shall first find a gravid eel
wliich shall be sufficiently developed to enable Professor Virchow in
Berlin to dissipate the doubts concerning the propagation of the eel.
Herr Dallmer, of Schleswig, inspector of fisheries in that province, offered
to transmit communications to Berlin, and in 1878, in the January num-
ber of the German Fishery Gazette, he published a detailed and very in-

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 95

teresting report of his proceedings. He wrote, among other things, that
it was quite beyond his expectation that this announcement would have
found its way into nearly all the German journals between the Rhine
and the Weichsel, and from the Alps to the sea. The number of letters
which he received first rejoiced him, then sur^^rised him, finally terrified
him, so that at last he was obliged to refuse to attend to the communi-
cations. He had learned at Berlin that an equal number of communi-
cations from all parts of Germany had been received, sent directly to
the address of Professor Virchow. Objects which professed to be young
eels cut out of the parents, but which were really thread worms, were
sent to him by dozens ; the most incredible stories, usually from women,
about great thick eggs which they had found in eels, were received by
him. A witty Berliner communicated to him in a j)acket sent by express
the information that the eel problem was now happily solved since a
lady eel in Berlin had given birth to twins. Finally Herr Dallmer
found himself compelled to insert the following notice in the Schleswiger
;N"achrichten : ' Since the German Fischerei-Verein has offered a premium
for the first gravid eel, the desire to obtain the prize, curiosity, or the
desire for knowledge has created so lively an interest upon this point
that it might almost be called a revolution. I at one time offered, when
necessarj', to serve as an agent for communications, but since business
has compelled me to be absent from home a great part of the time, I
would urgently request that hereafter i^ackages should be sent direct to
Professor Virchow in Berlin. I feel myself obliged to inform the public
upon certain special points. The premium is offered for a gravid eel,
not for the contents of such an eel, since if only these were sent it would
be uncertain whether they were actually taken from an eel. The eel
must always be sent alone ; the majority of senders have hitherto sent
me only the intestines or the supposed young of the eel, which were
generally intestinal worms ; the eel itself they have eaten ; nevertheless
the prize of 50 marks has been exi^ected by nearly all senders, &c. By
this transfer of the responsibilities, the inspector of fisheries has rendered
a very unthankful service to Professor Virchow ; he was obliged to
publish a notice in the papers in which he urgently stated that he
wished to be excused from receiving any more packages, for he would
hardly know what to do with them. The comic papers of Berlin now
circulated the suggestion that hereafter the eel should be sent to the
investigators only in a smoked state. This amusing episode is interest-
ing in showing how remarkable an interest the whole world was begin-
ning to take in the eel problem."*

XIV. Undoubted normal kepeoductive habits of the eel. —

Benecke.

It may be assumed with the greatest safety (writes Benecke) that the
eel lays its eggs like most other fish, and that, like the lamprey, it only

* Zoologischer Anzeiger No. 26, p. 193; American Naturalist, vol. 13, p. 125, and
Jacoby, p. 44 .

96 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

spawns once and then dies. All the eggs of a female eel show the same
degree of maturity, while in the fish which spawn every year, besides
the large eggs which are ready to be deposited at the next spawning
period, there exist very many of much smaller size, which are destined
to mature hereafter, and to be deposited in other years. It is very hard
to understand how young eels could find room in the body of their
mother if they were retained until they had gained any considerable size.
The eel embryo can live and grow for a very long time suj)i)orted by the
little yolk, but when this is gone it can only obtain food outside of the
body of its mother. The following circumstances lead us to believe that
the spawning of the eel takes j)lace only in the sea : (I) that the male
eel is found only in the sea or brackish water, while female eels yearly
undertake a pilgrimage from the inland waters to the sea, a circum-
stance which has been known since the time of Aristotle, and upon the
knowledge of which the principal capture of eels by the use of fixed ap-
paratus is dependent; (il) that the young eels with the greatest regu-
larity ascend from the sea into the rivers and lakes.

All statements in opposition to this theory are untenable, since the
young eels never find their way into land-locked ponds in the course of
their wanderings, while eels planted in such isolated bodies of water
thrive and grow raj^idly but never increase in numbers. Another still
more convincing argument is the fact that in lakes which formerly
contained many eels, but which, by the erection of impassable weirs,
have been cut off from the sea, the supply of eels has diminished, and
after a time only scattering individuals, old and of great size are taken
in them. An instance of this sort occurred in Lake Miiskendorf, in West
Prussia. If an instance of the reproduction of the eel in fresh water
could be found, such occurrences as these would be quite inexplicable.

In the upi^er stretches of long rivers, the migration of the eels begins
in April or May, in their lower stretches and shorter streams, later in
the season. In all running waters the eel fishery depends upon the
downward migrations ; the eels press up the streams with occasional
halts, remaining here and there for short periods, but always make their
way above. They ajipear to make the most progress during dark nights
when the water is troubled and stormy, for at this time they are cap-
tured in the greatest numbers. It is x^robable that after the eels have
once returned to the sea, and there deposit their spawn, they never can
return into fresh water but remain there to die. A great migration of
giown eels in spring or summer has never been reported, and it appears
certain that all the female eels which have once found their way to the
sea are lost to the fisherman. In No. 8 of t]ie German Fischerei Zei-
tung for 1878, Dr. Schock published certain statements sent to him
by Dr. Jacoby. It is remarked in this paper, among other things,
that after the deposition of the spawn, the female eel dies a phj^siologi-
cal death, and that occasionally the sea in the neighborhood of the
mouths of rivers has been found covered with dead eels whose ovaries
were empty. When, where, and by whom this observation was made,

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 97

and who jirououuced upon the emi^ty ovaries in these dead fish is un-
fortunately not mentioned.

A great number of the eels remain in inland waters while others
proceed to the sea, either because their eggs are at this time not suffi-
ciently ripe, or i^erhaps because they are sterile. It would seem prob-
able that the increase in the size of the eggs in the wandering eels
begins to be very ^apid after August and September, while in the
earlier months of the year, in all eels of moderate size, the eggs were
at the utmost biit about 0.00 in diameter. In September of the srime
yiear, I found (as an average of numerous measurements) a diameter
of 0.10 ; in October, O.IG ; in l^Tovember, 0.18 to 0.23, while the eggs
showed other characters connected with approaching maturity which
earlier in the season were not to be seen. All the eels which were
captured later — in December and in January — part of which came from
rivers and harbors, part from the harbor of Putzig (Putziger Wiek) had
eggs measuring from 0.09 to O.OO™"", while, very exceptionally, some
measured 0.16™™, although among the fish examined were some which
measured 3 feet in length.

XV Do MALE EELS LEAVE THE SEA AND ENTER I'RESH WATER.

This problem is one of great interest, both to the biologist and the
fish culturist; it is, in fact, the one disputed point still remaining to be
solved. Upon its solution appears to depend the final decision of the
question, still so warmly debated both in Europe and America, "Do
eels breed in fresh water only, in salt water only, or in both fresh and
salt water?" As has already been stated, the theory for a long time
generally accepted is that the eels are " catadromous," descending to the
sea to spawn. This theory is, however, sharply contested by many observ-
ers, chief among whom on this side of the Atlantic is the Hon. Eobert
B. Roosevelt, President of the American Fish Culture Association. It
appears probable to the writer that the truth lies somewhere between
these two extremes, and that it will be hereafter ascertained that the
eel, like a majority of other animals, has flexible habits, sometimes devi-
ating from its ordinary custom, which appears to be to spawn in salt or
brackish water.

Male eels have been found in the following localities :
(1.) In 1874, by Syrski, in the fish markets of Trieste, these markets
being supplied with eels from Chroggia on the Adriatic, and to
a lesser extent from the lagoons of Comacchio.
(2.) In 1875, on the coasts of France, by Dareste.
(3.) In 1875, among specimens of Anguilla mcmnorata from India.
(4.) In 1875, in the Baltic, at Wismar on the Danish coast, by Prof.

Von Siebold.
(5.) In 1877, in the lagoons of Comacchio, by Jacoby. Among 1200
specimens, five per cent, were males; while among those less
than 15 inches in length 20 per cent were males. This was in
brackish water. (See paragraph XIX).
Bull. U. S. F. C, 81 7

98 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

(6.) In 1879, at Trieste, by Dr. Hermes, who fouud 15 males among 20

eels selected by Dr. Syrski.
(7.) lu 1880, on the Baltic coasts of Denmark, by Dr. Hermes. Out of
one lot of 30 from Wismar, he obtained" 8 males, thus repeating
Van Siebold's observation.
(8.) In 1880, from the Baltic between Zealand and Saland, Denmark.

Out of one lot of 30, Dr. Hermes obtained 8 males.
(9.) In 1880, in France, by Eobin.
(10.) In 1880, by Cattie.
(11.) In 1880, hy Dr. Hermes, at Cumlosen, on the Elbe, about 120 miles

fi-om the German Ocean.
(12.) In 1880, at Rligers on the Baltic, by Dr. Hermes, who found 44J

per cent, males in one lot of 137.
(13.) By Dr. Pauly, among eels planted at Hiinnigen, in Elsass.-Loth-
ringen. See below.

It has been shown by Dr. Pauly that among the very young eels
[montee] taken near the mouths of rivers is a considerable percentage
of males, which, when transplanted to fresh water, will there retain
their masculine characters and develop into perfect adult males. This
discovery is, of course, of the utmost importance to fish culturists mak-
ing the attempt to introduce eels into new waters. Its imi3ortance has
already been pointed out by Director Haack.

The practical lesson to be learned is simply this — that young eels, for
introduction into strange waters, must be taken from very near the
mouths of rivers, in order that both males and females may be secured.
The interest to zoologists lies in the fact that Pauly's discovery renders
the theory of Van Siebold less plausible, indicating that the sexes
of the young eels are differentiated before they begin to mount the
rivers and that the males do not ascend beyond the limits of brackish
water.

Dr. Pauly's discovery is so interesting that I propose to translate his
own account of it. The investigation was made, I believe, in Munich,
and the report from which I quote was published in the Austro-Hun-
gariau Fishery Gazette, of Vienna, December 23, 1880. Dr. Pauly
writes : " During the past year I have received from Court-fisherman
Kuflfer a large number of eels, which I have used in my investigations.
The large individuals, all of which came from the lakes of northern
Italy, were females. I received, however, from the same individual,
another lot of eels, consisting of much smaller individuals, weighing
from 20 to 90 grams (f of an ounce to 3 ounces), also taken in fresh
water. At the request of Professor Von Siebokl, I had paid particular
attention to the sexes of the eels which I was engaged in investigating,
and to my great astonishment I found that a large majority of these
small eels (19 out of 27) were males, possessing, instead of the familiar
ovaries, the "lapiienorgan" described by Dr. Syrski. A histological

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 99

examination of these orjjans convinced me that the structure of these

tissues agreed with that described by Freud.

*******

My next inquiry was very naturally concerning the locality whence
these eels had been obtained. I learned that Kuffer had received them two
yeai'S before from Director Haack at Hiiningen, and upon questioning
Director Haack learned that they had been brought from a French
river, the sevre niortaise, where they were caught as young fry [montee]
at a distance of ten or twelve miles from its mouth, and furthermore
were at the time of examination about four years old. The small size
of these fish, their age being taken into consideration, satisfied me that
they had been reared in captivity, since uncultivated eels would have
been much heavier. The females in this lot of eels exceeded the males
in length and weight and also exhibited those external characters de-
scribed by Jacoby as indicating sex.

The locality in the sevre niortaise where these fish were taken may
easily, especiallj^ at flood tide, have been within the limits of brackish
water ; my observations do not prove, therefore, that male eels enter
fresh water.

Dr. Jacoby found male eels in the lagoons of Comacchio, where the
water is brackish. These males must have ascended in the "mountmg"
as fry, and probably at the approach of sexual maturity descend with
the females to the sea. My investigations and those of Jacoby prove
only this : that the young female eels do not necessarily break away
from their j)arents and from their birth-places at sea, and entirely alone
proceed upon their migrations, while the males scatter through the sea,
but that their brothers seem to accompany them part of the way upon
their journey. But how far? Do the males know where pure fresh
water begins, and are the fry of different sexes found mingled together
only at the river mouths? If we bear in mind the fact that the male
organs had so long escaped discovery, that, on account of their crystal-
like transparency, their detection in a fresh eel is so difficult, etc., may
we not admit that past conclusions are probably erroneous, and that
although thousands of fresh-water eels have been studied by different
investigators, male eels may yet be found in our streams, especially

when more of the smaller individuals have been examined."

**** **** **

Dr. Pauly then discusses the observations of Dr. Hermes, who found
11 per cent, of males among eels taken at Willenberg, on the Elbe, about
120 miles from the German Ocean, and no males whatever atHavelberg,
20 or 30 miles higher up the stream, and closes his essay with the fol-
lowing conclusions : " 21ale eels iindouhtedly ascend the rivers^ hut the
numerical percentage of males to females appears to diminish as one pro-
ceeds up the streams.''^ This fact is opposed to the theory i)roposed by
some one that young eels are at first of undifferentiated sex and have
the tendency under the influence of fresh water to become females,
under that of salt water to develop male characters."

100 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

XVI. Strange misstatements in ichthyological literature.

One may conclude from these observations that the eels preparing- to
spawn leave the inner waters early in December and seek out the deeper
places of the sea, where they Cannot be caught with our ordinary imple-
ments of capture. The eel eggs can only be found by a systematic in-
vestigation of certain parts of the sea bottom with the dredge and the
microscope. This investigation might also include the sinking of the
migrating eels in special cases to the bottom of the sea, in order to
determine whether, under these circumstances, the eggs would ripen
more rapidly. By using the largest fish for this purpose one could
arrange, by means of small openings in the cages, to permit the entrance
of the small male eels. At any rate, there is no doubt from these ob-
servations that the spawning period of the eel takes place in winter.

In an article by Guido Lindenhain, entitled "The Natural History of
the Eel" {Zur NaturgescJiichte der Aale), which has recently been pub-
lished in the Austro-Hungarian Fishery Gazette, extending through
six numbers, a fanciful contributor of that paper, among other wonder-
ful things, claims to have discovered the spawning of the eel in rivers
and ponds. I will allow the very sagacious gentleman to recount his
summer-night's dream in his own words, in order to show with what
certainty and precision the most baseless fables concerning the natural
history of tlie eel are even yet narrated :

" The methods of spawning by the eel," writes this keen observer, " are
very interesting, but to observe them is very difficult and tiresome, and^
indeed, only possible when the spawning places have already been deter-
mined by experience. One must remain for many nights upon the shore,
hidden behind the bushes, with unflagging attention, until these nocturnal
adventurers have come into the shallow water and made their presence
known by their snake-like motions at the surface. As soon as they
have gathered together upon their chosen haunts there is a great com-
motion in the water, and powerful blows are heard, so that the water
splashes up a considerable distance, and the surface is covered with
little waves, as if some great object were moving about, after which
one gets giimi^ses of jiarts of the bodies of the contending rivals of the
happy spawning fishes themselves. After the duration of an hour or
so it is again quiet, and one sees that the water is moved' in difterent
directions in serpent-like waves, which become less and less apparent to
the eye of the observer, while the eels are leaving the spawning-places
and are betaking themselves to hunt for food or are seeking their cus-
tomary quiet dwelling-places. If the observer, moved by overwhelming
curiosity, comes on the following day to the same place, he sees nothing,
but if he looks with a strong magnifying glass carefully over the water-
I)lants, he discovers little greenish-white eggs resting upon the bottom,
out of which the young eels will escape in about six weeks."

"It is onlj' to be regretted that the enterprising observer has not
illustrated the whole develoi3ment of the egg by photograj)liic views of
his fancies."

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 101

Another wonderful story was narrated by Dallmer.*

A Fleiisbnrg- eel-smoker told him that once, in April, one of the
sacks iu which eels had been sent to him, after it had been emptied,
was put into the water with the others ; after having been tied up he
found, after eight to fourteen days, millions of living young eels from
one to two inches long. He thought that fertilized spawn had been
left in the bag which, in eight to fourteeu days, had developed into
fishes of one to two inches in length. A million of young eels of li inches
in length would take a space of 9,701 cubic iuches,which would be much
more than a sack could contain. Such a quantity of little fishes would
scarcely be able to find in a sack tied together at its mouth food enough
to enable them to grow from a very minute size (the eggs in the ovary
have been found only 0.23™°^ large, and may, perhaps, when laid, meas-
ure 0.5™™) in eight days to a length of from one to two inches ; let us,
however, suppose that the eel-smoker had confounded a hundred little
eels with as many millions, it could hardly, even then, happen that
these little animals in from eight to fourteen days could have grown to
160 times their original dimensions. The story would be much more
probable if it were supposed that the young eels in their wanderings
toward the fresh waters had, perhaps, found their way into a bag which
was not tied uj) at its mouth.

In De La Blauchere's " Xouveau Dictionaire general de peche, Paris,
186S," occurs the following paragraph, without any indication of its
source : " Chenu and Desmarest do not hesitate to state that the eel
spawns upon the mud after a kind of copulation ; that the eggs remain,
adhering together, joined by a glutinous substance analogous to that
which connects the eggs of the fresh- water perch, and forms little pel-
lets or rounded globules. Each female, as they have succeeded in ob-
serving, produces annually many of these masses. The little fish soon
hatch out and remain, for the first few days after their birth, together
in these masses, but when they have reached a length of 4 or 5™™ they
shake off the bonds which hold them and soon ascend in great bodies
the streams and brooklets near which they find themselves."

According to this, the eggs are deposited in masses of slime, inside of
which the young hatch out in the course of a few days, and a few days
later they shake themselves free and swim about at liberty.

When and where these investigators have made such observations is
not to be found out from the " Dictionaire " ; at any rate, it is very hard
to understand how they have proved that the same female eel yearly
lays several sets of eggs.

XVII. BENECKE on THE MOVEMENTS OF YOUNG EELS.

Benecke gives the following thorough discussion of the movements of
young eels:

The young eels, hatched out of the eggs at sea, doubtless live at the

* Fisclie uud Fiscberei im Sussen Wasser, Segeberg, 1877.

102 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

bottom until tliey grow, tbrongli consumption of ricli food substances
there to be found, to a size from 1 to 3 centimeters. When they have
attained this size they begin their wanderings in immense schools, i)ro-
ceediug to ascend into the rivers and lakes. These wanderings of the
young eels have been known for a very long time ; for instance, in the
lagoons of Comacchio, in which they may be found, for the most part,
after they have gained the length of from 6 to 8 millimeters, and in
France, later also in England, Denmark, Sweden, and, more recently, in
Germany they have also been observed.

According to the French reports young eels are hatched out early in
the winter, and in February, having attained the length of 4 or 5 centi-
meters, they appear in the brackish water at the mouth of the Loire in
immense numbers, soon to begin their wanderings up the stream. They
swim in crowded schools at the surface of the river right up to the banks,
and little detachments of the army deploy at the mouth of each tributary
and pursue their wanderings along its course. These swarms of young
eels are called in France " Moutee," in Italy, " Montata." The number
of the young fish is, as might be expected from the number of the eggs
in the ovary of the eel, wonderfully large. Eedi has recounted that from
the end of January to the end of Aj^ril the young fish continue wander-
ing up the Arno, and that in 18G7 over 3,000,000 pounds of them were
taken in five hours. Into the lagoons of the Comacchio the eels pour
from February to April. In March and April they have been noticed in
many French rivers, in which the migration continues for from eight to
fourteen days. The first account of these wanderings in Germany was
that given by Von Ehlers. In 1863 he wrote to Von Siebold : " This
took place about ten years ago, in the village of Drennhausen, in the
Province of Wesen, in the Kingdom of Hanover. As we were walking,
towards the end of June or the beginning of July, on a dike, which at
that place projects out into the Elbe, we noticed that along the entire^
shore there might be seen a moving band of a dark color. Since every-
thing which takes i:>lace in tbe Elbe is of interest to the inhabitants of
that region, this phenomenon immediately attracted attention, and it
soon became apparent that this dark band was composed of an innumer-
able body of young eels, which were pressing against each other, as, at
the surface of the stream, they were forcing their way upwards towards
its source, while they kept themselves so close to the shore that they fol-
lowed all its bendings and curves. The width of this band of fish at the
place where it was observed (where the Elbe has a considerable depth)
was perhaps a foot, but how deep it was could not be observed, so
thickly crowded together were the young eels. As they swam a great
number could be taken in a bucket, and it was very annoying to the peo-
ple who lived along the Elbe that so long as the procession of fish lasted
no water could be taken out of the river which was not full of the little
fish. The length of the young eels was, on an average, from 3 to 4 inches ;
the thickness of the body was about equal to that of a goose-quill. By

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 103

themselves might here and there be seen swimming eels of greater size,
but none of them were jirobably more than 8 inches in length. All of
them, even the smallest, were dark colored. Tiiis wonderful procession
of fishes continued unbroken and of the same density throughout the
whole of the day on which it was first observed, and continued also uj)ou
the following- da>j. On the morning of the third day, however, not one
of the young' eels was to be seen."

Similar observations have been made at Wittenberg, on the Elbe.
Kuppfer observed great quantities of young eels, of about 3 centimeters
in length, in the brackish water of the Eider, at Freiderickstadt; so also
did Yon Stemann.

" Every year," writes the latter, "from April to the end of June, there
appear great masses of young eels, which are present in large schools
toward the Upper Eider, seeking in every way to pass each other. In
Ajiril the first eels show themselves generally singly : cold weather has
evidently kept them back up to this time ; since this year, until to-day,
no ascent whatever has taken place, and now the approach of the great
schools is beginning. Where the current is feeble, the procession is
broad ; but where the eels encounter a strong current — near a mill — it
becomes small, and presses close to the shore, in order to overcome the
currents. The little animals swim eagerly and rapidly along near the
banks until they find a place over which they decide to climb. Here
they lie in great heaps, and appear to await the rising- of the tide, which
makes their ascent easier. The tide having risen, the whole mass begins
to separate without delay ; eel after eel climbs up on the steep wall of
rock, determined to reach the little pools, at the height of 15 or 20 inches,
into which some of the water from the Upper Eider has found its way.
Into these holes the little animals creep, and have yet to travel a dis-
tance of 40 or 50 feet under the roadway before they can reach the
Upper Eider. Another detachment betakes itself to the sluice-ways,
and clings to the cracks in the wood ; also around the mills their ascent
may be observed, especially about sunrise."*

Davy sends a similar account from Ireland. He was a witness of the
ascent of young eels, or " elvas," at Ballyshannon, at the end of July,
1823 ; he si)eaks of the mouth of the river under the fall being "black-
ened by millions of little eels about as long as a finger, which were
constantly urging their way up the moist rock beside of the fall."
"Thousands," he adds, "died; but their bodies, remaining, served as a
ladder by which the rest could make their way ; and I saw some ascend-
ing even peri)endicular stones, making their way through wet moss or
adhering to some eels that had died in the attempt."*

* Professor Benecke had in his possession some of the young eels, ■which escaped
from all the vessels in which they were confined, and even climbed to the ceiling of
his room.

* Eel-fairs in Connecticut. — Fresh-water eels may be canght in large numbers,
in weirs along the lake streams, when descending at the fall equinox to deposit their
spawn in some lower region, and in the following August their offspring, from three

104 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

Sucli is the energy of these little animals that they continued to find
their way in immense numbers to Loch Erne.

In the little eels which ascend the rivers there are no traces of sexual
organs, but in the fresh water they develop only into females. One of
the most recent observations made by Dr. Pauly, in Munich, would
appear to contradict this idea, since he discovered male eels among the
fish which were brought with a lot of young eels to Hliningeu, were
kept there for two years in ponds, and were finally released in the fish
pond of Court-Fisherman Kaufler. We should bear in mind, however,
that these young eels were captured at the mouths of fresh rivers in
brackish water ; and that among the numerous small eels which swim
in the brackish water there must be many larger specimens, in which
the male organs have already begun to develop. Such are doubtless
those which were sent in the male condition to Hiiningen and Munich,
and were there recognized as males. This presumption can be set aside
only if male eels shall hereafter be found among the fish which are
caught in the upper part of rivers in the condition of young fry.

Concerning another imi)ortant fact which is connected with the
movements of the young fry of the eel, I became acquainted last year
(in the course of an exploration of the waters of the district of Kouitz-
kunde) with the river Brahe, at Mlihlhof, above Eittel, where a high dam
was built in 184G and 1847 for the purpose of watering a large system
of meadows by the overflowing of the stream. Below the dam is an
inclined plane (constructed of boards), about 300 feet long, built for the
j)urpose of preventing the water, which rushes out when the sluice-gate
is opened, from washing away the bottom of the stream and its banks.
This plank floor consists of two layers, the lower one of 2-inch, the upi^er
one of 3-inch boards. The grade of the dam at Mlihlhof (33 feet 3
inches) has entirely cut ofi" the ascent of the fry of the eel into the upper
part of the Brahe and the lakes tributary to it, and the number of eels
caught above the dam — which was formerly very considerable — has
become reduced almost to nothing. In tbe year 1847 the construction
of the dam and the inclined plane was completed ; in 1852 the upper
layer of the planks on the plane had warped and sprung up in mauy
IDlaces, so that it had to be torn up for repairs. The cause of the warp-
ing was immediately discovered: thousands of eels — as thick as a man's
finger — somewhat flattened in shape, and, on account of the absence of
light, of a pure white color, filled the space between the two layers of
planks, and their united pressure from beneath had caused the upper

to six inches long, return in immense numbers. The basin of the Still River Falls,
near Colebrooke line, is for several days alive with them. They may be seen labor-
iously crawling up every rock which is moistened by the spray of the fall, and en-
deavoring to reach their ancestral lake or dam. At the foot of the Niagara Falls this
phenomenon may be witnessed on a large scale at the same season of the year or
later, and probably in other places where the fall is too high and the cuirent too
swift for the young eels to stem it without contact with the rocks. — Annals of Win-
chester, Conn., Boyd, p. 26.

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 105

layer to yield ; these eels had foimd their way between the boards as
frj', where they had found sufficient food and had grown to such a size
that the pressure of their united strength had pushed up the roof of
their j)rison. These facts, observed by an old millwright, were com-
municated to me by Privy Counsellor Schmid, of Maricnwerder, who
supervised the construction of the Miihlhof dam, and he fully confirmed
them.

Eels of 4 inches in length, which in May are plenty in fish-jionds, by
the end of October reach a length of 10 inches and the thickness of a
man's little finger; in the following fall they measure from 20 to 24
inches, and in the third year are ready to be eaten. On account of their
rapid growth and hardy nature, in consequence of which latter they
live in mud-holes and unprofitable waters of all kinds, the breeding of
eels is a very remunerative business. The young fish (of which, at the
time of their first appearance at the mouths of rivers, it takes 1,500 to
1,700 to make a pound, while, when taken later and a little further from
the sea, it takes only 350 to 400 for the same weight) may be obtained
at low prices from France through Hiiniugen, or in Germany from
Eandesberg and, through the Berlin Aquarium, from Wittenberg, and,
when the temperature of the air is not too high, may be carried in soft
moss throughout all Germany.

According to the statement of the well-known Paris fish-merchant,
Millet, two pounds of eels, planted in a muddy pond in 1840, in five
years yielded 5,000 pounds of fine eels.

XVIII. Observations of Dr. Hermes in 1881 on the conger.

The observations of Dr. Otto Hermes, director of the Berlin Aquarium,
who has recently discovered the true nature of the organ of Syrski in
the conger, are extremely interesting.

'' Since Syrski, in 1874, found the organs in AncniiUa vulgaris — which are
called by his name, and which, by him and most zoologists, were taken
for the male reproductive organs — it is only necessary that a ripe male
eel should be found in order to settle forever the question of the sexes
of the eel. Up to this time all efforts have failed to reach the desired
result. The histiological investigations of the Syrskian organs pursued
by S. Freud render it more i)robable that these were young roes ; yet
there remained all the time a doubt, since the spermatozoa had not been
actually observed, and this uncertainty is an insuperable obstacle to the
acceptance of the Syrskian discovery. The supposed discovery of sper-
matozoa by A. S. Packard in the male eel proved to be another delu-
sion. The contradiction of this imaginary discovery appeared in No. 26
of the second volume of the Zoologische Anzeiger, p. 193, in which it
was stated that the motile bodies were not spermatozoa, but yolk par-
ticles. This correction was also made by Yon Siebold's assistant, Dr.
Paul,* and by S. Th. Cattle.

^Austrian Fishery Gazette, 1880, No. 12, p. 90.

106 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

"The reproductive organs of Conger vulgaris are very similar to those
of Anguilla vulgaris ; in the undeveloped condition they show the ovaries

lying in the same position in a
jS. S cuft-shaped band of a propor-

tionally large size. Since C.
^ vulgaris reaches nearly twice
the size of .4. vulgariSj individ-
uals of G feet in length are not
rare. The ovary is developed
in the captivity, and this, I am
convinced, is often the cause of
the death of the eel. In a Con-
ger which died in the Berlin
Aquarium, and was cut open,
the ovaries protruded very ex-
tensively, and a specimen which
lies in the Frankfort Aquarium
burst on account of the extraor-
dinary development of the ova-
ries. The ovaries of this eel,
which weighed 22 J pounds,
themselves weighed 8 jiounds,
and the number of eggs was
about 3,300,000. The want of
a natural opening for the escape
of the eggs was evidently in
this case the cause of death.
Male specimens of the Conger
in an undeveloped condition I
have hitherto never had the op-
I)ortunity to investigate. I re-
ceived, however, in the fall of
1879 a number of sea-eels, taken
in the vicinity of Havre, whose
average length was from 24 to
27 inches. These eels ate greed-
ily and grew rapidly. Only one
was tardy in its development,
so that it could be easily distin-
guished from the rest. This,
which was the smallest of the
Congers in the aquarium, died
on the 20tli of June, 1880, and
I was very much delighted when
I found the sexual organs very different from those which I had ever
noticed before. After a single cut into them, there flowed out a milky

Fig. 9.— a, ripe male reproductive organs of a Conger-eel,
thirty inches in length, ^ natural size.

a, intestiuul canal.

d', upper, d" mifldle, d'" lower portion of the
liver, wliich has been thrown to one side.

/, air-bladder.

g, gall-bladder.

h, anal ajierture.

ii, ij, r.i, u, Ibld.s of the left spermary.

ki, fcj, ks, fcj, kr„ folds of ihe right spermary.

I, seminal pouch.

-m, urinary bladder.

p. skinny covering of the spermary.

£, spermatozoa.

was examined bv me on the same day.

BaJ.LETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 107

fluid, wliich, under the microscope, with a power of 450 diameters,
showed a great uumber of spermatozoa, in the liveliest motion, and in.
which head and tail were evi-
dently visible. There could be
no doubt that I had found a sex-
ually mature male of Conger vul-
garis. Two fragments of the roe
were laid aside for further in-
vestigation, and the eel, which
was 28 inches long, was prepared
first in alcohol and then in Wick-
ersheimer fluid.

In the paper before us Dr.
Jacoby presents a full anatomi-
cal description of the generative
organs of the conger as demon-
strated by himself and Dr. Rabl-
Eiickhard. It seems unneces-
sary to repeat this description
since the organs are very similar
to those in the common eel. By
the kindness of Dr. Hermes we
are permitted to reproduce the
drawings which accomjiany this
description.

Compared with the descrip-
tion of the roe and the figure of
the organ found by Syrski and
by me, called ' lappen organ,' a
great similarity is noticed be-
tween them. It must be borne
in mint] that in this case we were
comparing the entirely undevel-
oped organs of the eel with the
fully ripe reproductive organs of
the Conger, so every doubt as to
the male nature of the Syrskian
organs ought to be thrown aside.
Also in the comparison of the size
of the male with that of the fe-
male the Conger shows the same
relations as the eel investigated
by Syrski, to wit : that the males
are smaller than the females.

It is well known, as Yon Siebold remarks, that young eels, ascending
the rivers, develoi)ed into females and that the males remain in the sea

Fig, 10..

■C TTndevelnped reproductive organ of a female
Conger -eel, 34 inches long, J natural size.

a. Stomach.

b. Cffical appendage.

c. Spleen.

d. Liver.

e. Kight ovary.
e'. Left ovary".
/. Air-l>la(l(ler.
g. Gall-bladder.
h. Anal aperture.
m. I^rinary bladder.
p. End of left ovary.

108 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

or at the mouths of rivers. This statement cannot be exactly clemon-
• strated, since among 250 eels, from 11 to 15 inches in length, taken in
the vicinity of Cumlosen, I found 13 males or 5 per cent. (Cumloseu is
situated in the vicinity of Wittenberg and is at least 120 miles from the
mouth of the Elbe). How large the percentage of difference between
the neighborhood of the mouth of Elbe and jDlaces situated farther up
the stream, as regards the proportion of males and females, may be, I
have hitherto, from want of material, been unable to decide. Forty from
the Havel at Havelberg (about 20 miles above Cumlosen) were all
females. Out of 137 eels taken in the bays at Eiigen, in the Baltic, I
found 61 or 44J i)er cent, males, while at Wismar, on the Danish coast,
the males only constituted 11 per cent. Whether these facts have any
connection with the discovery of the hitherto unknown spawning places
of the eels, it is hoped that further observations will determine.

When Cattle, in his already cited work, gives it as a determined fact
that the eels wander into deep water here, in order to let their genera-
tive organs attain maturity, which happens in six or eight weeks, and
that the old male and female eels, after the reproductive act, die, accord-
ing to my knowledge, there are wanting observations which will give
this a scientific foundation. What Von Siebold and Jacoby only state
as ijrobable appear to him (Cattie) to have become already established
facts.

As far as the distinction between male and female eels by external
characters is concerned, the eels sent to me, some time in November,
from the coast of Schleswig showed so great difference in color that
their sender, the fish-master Hinkleman, was able to decide without
difiiculty between males and females. The former were distinguished
by a specially brown coloration, while the females, in addition to greater
size, almost without exception exhibited a dull steel-gray color. Among
the males were found many specimens of 17| inches in length, which I
was careful to note because Syrski had only found the size of 16 1 inches.
In Comacchio, according to Jacoby, a specimen of 18| inches had been
found.

XIX. Jacoby's tour to Comacchio in 1877, and his conclusions.

" In the fall of 1877," writes Jacoby, ' ' I undertook a journey from Trieste,
by way of Eavenna, to Comacchio; convinced of the difficulty of the ques-
tions to be solved by my own previous labors, I had not -great hopes
of finding sexually immature eels, either gravid females or mature males.
My highest aim was at the beginning to determine the following i)oints :
(I) Whether evidences of preparation for breeding might not be found in
the eels which were wandering in the fall toward the sea; (II) to what
extent eels with the organ of Syrski could be found participating in
this migration ; (III) as far as possible to obtain eels from the sea at a
distance from the coast in order to compare their organs of reproduction
with those of the eels in the lagoons.

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 109

"In cletermiiiiiig' tlie answers to the first two qnestions I was able to
make some new and interesting discoveries, bnt with regard to the lat-
ter, my most diligent eflforts were absolutely fruitless.

" I found that the eels when migrating to the sea in the fall took no
food. In many hundreds examined by me, caught during their move-
ment, I fouud stomach and intestines entirely empty ; that the eels dur-
ing their migrations eat nothing is also known to all fishermen and water-
men of Comacchio. At the same time, the eeis which remained in the
lagoons were more or less filled with food, not only those which were not
sufQcientlj' mature to migrate, but also a breed of eels which never goes
to the sea, but remains throughout its entire life in the lagoons.

" There may be found in Comacchio, and doubtlesse very where where
eels live in great numbers in brackish water along the coast, a peculiar
group of eels which, as far as I could determine, consists entirely" of
sterile females. These female eels with ovaries iiresent a very peculiar
phenomenon ; when they are opened one finds instead of the well-known
yellowish-white, very fatty, cuff-shaped organ, a thin, scummy, slightly
folded membrane, not at all fatty, often as transparent as glass, and of
about the same jiroportional size as the so-called cuff-shaped organ.
"When this membrane is examined under the microscope there may be
seen in it eggs very transparent in appearance, with yolk-dots absent or
with yolk-dots very small and few. This organ appears to be an abnor-
mally-developed ovary incapable of fertilization. These sterile females,
which I found of all sizes, even up to the length of 27 inches, present all
of the acknowledged female characters in great prominence and in an
exaggerated degree ; the snout is broader, and often, esi^ecially at the tip
of the under jaw, extraordinarily broad ; the dorsal fins are, on the aver-
age, higher; the eyes are much smaller, especially in large specimens,
and the coloring is clearer; the back of a clearer green and the belly
yellower than in the normal female. The flesh of these sterile females
has a very delicate flavor, and quite different from that of other eels.
I was quite astonished at the fine flavor when I tasted them for the first
time in Comacchio. The flesh, as the expression goes, melts upon the
tongue. It is even possible to distinguish them while living, by feeling
them with the hand, their soft bodies being very different from the hard,,
solid, muscular flesh of the others.

" In Comacchio these eels are called ' Pasciuti.' Coste called them
' Priscetti,' and defined them to be those eels which had not become
ripe, but which were at least a pound in weight. The name 'Priscetti '
is, however, very incorrect, as I have become convinced by questioning
the fish inspectors and by hearing the conversations of the fishermen^
'Pasciuto' means 'pastured,' and the fishermen understand by this,
those eels which do not migrate, but which remain through the whole
year feeding in the lagoons. They include, however, under this name,.
eels of two kinds— the sterile females already described, and the eels
which are not yet ripe, as well as the normal females and supposed

110 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

males, whose period of migration is somewbat remote. This circum-
stance is a cause of much difficulty to the investigator.*

A.— sterile females

or Pasciuti.

B.-

-Kormal Females.

C— Eels

with supposed male
organs.

a.

6.

1

a.

b.

a.

6.

I.

508

10

I.

511

8

I.

— —

ir.

480

8.5

n.

497

7

n.

480

6

in.

458

11

, III.

465

9

ni.

470

6

IV.

443

9

i IV.

447

7

IV.

445

5

V.

426

8.5

V.

425

6

V.

428

0

VI.

408

8

VI.

407

6

VI.

403

5

VII.

395

lit

vn.

396

7

VII.

396

5.5

"The studies on the second point to be solved were of special interest,
"vdz, the determination of the presence at Comacchio, and the behavior
of eels with organs of Syrski. I can answer this question very briefly,
since among 1,200 specimens examined by me at the fishing stations and
at the so-called eel-factories (with the exception of the largest specimens,
which are always females), I found on an average of five per cent, with the
organ of Syrski; of the eels under 15 inches in length (45 centimeters)
on an average there were 20 per cent., so that the conclusions as to
their abundance were very similar to those at Trieste, where the fish
market is supplied, for the greater part, with eels from Chioggia, and
to a less extent with those from Comacchio.

' ' In Comacchio the largest eels with the organ of Syrski, which I
have observed, were about 17 inches (48 centimeters) iu length, the small-
est about 9 inches (24 centimeters). All of these were foimdjimong the
eels taken during their migration to the sea, and, like the females, were
found with stomachs completely empty or slightly filled with a slimy
substance. It was impossible to find in any specimen a more advanced
deveolpment of the Syrskian organ than in those examined in summer at
Trieste.

" With reference to the third question undertaken by me, which relates
to the actual kernel of the eel question, that is, the j)ossibility of obtain-
ing the eels which have migrated out to sea, in order to obtain in
this manner the sexually mature milters and si)awners, I have been
unable to obtain any results. I have, so far as my opportunities per-
mitted, left no stone unturned to gain its solution. I went out to sea

* It has been noticed by many early writers that there are certain eels which never
come to the sea — Risso, iu his " Histoire Naturelle," tome 3, p. 198, and S. Nilsson,
in his ' ' Scandiuavisk Fauna," tome 4, i). CGo. The latter called this variety ' ' Grasaal,"
or grass-eel, and spoke of its yellowish- green coloration and the soft, delicious flesh.
Strange enough, both these writers spoke of the sharper snout of this eel, and Risso,
who founded upon it another species, Anguila acutirostris, described it as blackish above
and silvery below. These descriptions apply in every particular to the non-migratory
eel of Comacchio. Jacoby remarks that all the sterile females brought to him under
the name " Pasciuti," were distinguished by their broad snouts. The following tables
were prepared at Comacchio. a gives the total length of the body of the eel ; b, the
breadth of the snout between the nasal tubes, in millimeters.

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. Ill

from Magnavacca and from Codigoro, on Chioggian vessels, and many-
times have fished myself, and have stimulated the fishermen by offers
of reward to endeavor to obtain eels at sea, but I am forced to the con-
elusion that with the ordinary means this cannot be done.

"Intelligent, grey-headed fishermen of Chioggia, who by means of their
fishing apparatus know this part of the Adriatic as well as they know
their own pockets, have assured me that throughout their entire lives
they have never caught a grown-up river eel in the sea at any distance
fi'om the coast. The eels which were brought to me at Mannbach as
having been caught in the sea, and which I found to be the ordinary
females, or eels with the Syrskian organ, were either from localities close
to the shore where they are not rare, or were taken in the Palotta canal.
There was no lack of attempts at deception. Fishermen took eels from
the shore with them in order to be able, on their return, to claim that
they had been caught at sea. In the immediate neighborhood of the
coast they are, as it has been stated, in the spring-time not rare, and
there are not the slightest differences between these and the eels of the
lagoons. I found both females and eels with the organ of Syrski
with their re J) roductive organs in the same immature condition as in
Comacchio ; evidently the}' had just come through the Palotta canal
from the lagoon into the sea. A certain distance, perhaps one or two
marine miles from the coast, every trace is lost of the adult eels which
wander by the many thousand into the sea. Strange as this problem
ai^pears at first sight, it is easily understood when the character of the
fishing apparatus is considered ; the nets are those used in the capture
of lobsters, and are thrown over the bottom f they have meshes much
too large to hold the eels, or, when they are small-meshed, they do not
touch the bottom. The problem can only be solved by using" apparatus
constructed especially for the purpose."

Jacoby proposes the following questions, which, in his opinion, cover
the still unanswered points concerning the natural history of the eel,
and answers them in accordance with the results of his own observations :

Question 1. How can the fact be accounted for that no one has ever
found mature females and males, spawners and milters, among the eels?

Answer. The eels require the influence of sea- water for the development
of their reproductive organs. As is now definitely understood, they leave
the rivers and the brackish lakes on account of the undeveloped condi-
tion of their reproductive organs, for the j)urpose of becoming sexually
mature at sea ; that these migrations to the sea take i^lace for the i)ur-
pose of reproduction aiopears to be certainly proved by the fact that the
young eels leave the sea in the spring, and that the migrating eels, like
other fishes at the spawning- season, abstain from earing.

Question 2. When and where occurs^ the necessary development of
the reproductive organs of the eel to a condition in which they are
capable of fertilization !

Answer. Development of the reproductive organs takes place in the

112 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

sea, not close to the shore, but at a distance and in deep waters. This
development is extraordinarly raj)id when the immature state, in which
the migrating eels are found, is taken into consideration ; they must
become sexually mature within a few, probably five or six, weeks of the
time that they enter the sea. At Comacchio the emigration takes place
between the beginning of October and the end of December.

Question 3. Where does the act of spawning take place, the fertiliza-
tion, and the deposition of the eggs ?

Answer. There are probably certain definite spawning jilaces in the
sea, off the mouths of the rivers. These are the mud-banks to which the
eels go, for the ijurpose of spawning, in great numbers. The young fish
are developed upon these mud-banks, and from eight to ten weeks after
their birth, at the beginning of spring, find their way to the mouths of
rivers, which they ascend.

Question 4. What becomes of the grown-up eels after spawning time,
and why do they remain lost to sight and never again come back into
the rivers'?

Answer. The old eels, male and female, without doubt, die soon after
the spawning season. The very unusual rapid development of their re-
productive organs has such an effect upon the systems of the adult eels
that they die soon after the act of reproduction. This is the reason why
they are never seen to wander back again.*

An intelligent Chioggian, the owner of a fishing vessel, in answer to
my question, as to where the old eels staid, answered, "They die on the
mud-banks after they have propagated their young."

This hypothesis may be confirmed in a scientific manner by the anal-
ogous circumstances in the history of the lamprey. Panizza, in his
description of the sea lamprey, Petromyzon marina, remarks', that both
the males and females of this species after the spawning " period are
brought up dead. Concerning the river lamprey, P. fluviatilis, Statins
Miiller remarks that when they spawn they slowly fall away and die.
Concerning the little lamprey, P. planeri, August Miiller, the discoverer
of its larval form, has recorded the same opinion.

XX. — A LIST OF THE MOST IMPORTANT PAPERS CONCERNING THE

EEL AND ITS REPRODUCTION.

1684. Eedi, Francisco. Osservazioni intorno agli animali viventi che

se trovano negii animali viventi. Florence, 1684.

["Ou living animals wMcli occur witliiu other animals." Refers to the
mountiuj^ of the young eels in the Aruo, and particularly to an enormous cap-
ture of young eels at Pisa, in 1667, [p. 100]. Illustrates the ovaries of a maray
(Murcena lielena). Proves that the objects ordinarily supposed to be young
eels are intestinal vrorms, and argues that eels must be viviparous. ]

* As a confirmation of this view, Von Siebold was the first to make this hypothesis.

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 113

1692. LeeuwenhoeKj Anton de. < Arcana jSTaturae, 1692.

[Leeuweuhoek describes the urinary bladder of the eel as its uterus, and
parasitic worms found therein as the young of the species.]

1G97. Allen, Benjamin. On the Generation of Eels. < Pliilosopliical
Transactions, London, xix, 1697, pp. 664-666.
[Allen claimed that eels were ovo-viviparous.]

1698. Dale, — . An account of a very large eel lately caught at Mai-
den, in Essex, with some considerations about the generation
of eels. < Philosophical Transactions, xx, 1698, i)p. 90-97.

1712. Vallisneri, Antonio. De Ovario Anguillarum. < Ephemer.
Leopoldinischen Academic der Naturforscher, 1712, pj). 153-165,
Fig. 4.

[Contains an announcement of a supposed discovery of the ovary of the
eel ; the organ described by him was a diseased and deformed swimuung-
bladder. ]

1746. Arderon, Williaivi. On the Perpendicular Ascent of Eels.

< Philosophical Transactions, London, xliv, 1746, pp. 395-396.
1750. Fahlbeeo, Aloot. Yon der Fortpflanzung und Vermehrung

der Aale. <Abhaudl. Schwed. Akad., xii, 1750, pp. 199-202.

[Not seen. Title from Syrski . ]

1766. LiNN^us, Carolus. Muroena Anguilla. < Systema Naturae, i,

1766 (12th ed.), p. 426.

[Under the head of the eel, the father of modern natural history sums up
its life history as known to him: "Habitat in Europa, maxima in lacu
Comachio Ferrariensi ; uon fert Danubiam, nisi rarissime ; nocturna latet
in cceno duj^lici foramine, coercetur trunco albo betulpe; cutis tenacissima;
parit vivipara sub canicula. * * * Hybernat; noctu tenebricosa obam-
bulat; cadaveribus victitat."]

1777-83. MoNDiNi, Carlo. De Anguillie Ovariis. <De Bononiensi
Scientiarum et Artium Instituto atque Academia Commenta-
rii, tom. vi, 1783, pp. 406-418. '[Bologna, 1783.]

[Read before the Bologna Academy in 1877. After a comment upon the
discovery of Spallanzani, which was shown to be untenable, the supposed
ovary described by that investigator having been, simply a diseased swim-
bladder, Mondini describes the true ovary of the eel, illustrating his dis-
covery by excellent drawings. In the opinion of Jacoby and others this
was the first demonstration of the ovary of the eel.]

1780. MuLLER, Otto Friedrich. TJnterbrochne Bemiihungen bei den
Intestinalwurmern. <Schrilten, Berliner Gesellsch. Naturf.
Freunde, i, 1780, pp. 202-218.

[Announces the discovery of the ovary of the eels — a discovery inde-
pendent from that of Mondini, though made three years later. Many au-
thors have given the honor of discovery to Miiller, owing to the fact that
Mondini's paper, read to the Bologna Academy in 1777, was not published

until 1783.]

1783. Monte, Cajetan. De Anguillarum Ortu et Propagatione.

< Comment. Acad. Bonon., vi, 1783, i)p. 392-405.
Bull. U. S. F. C, 81 8

114 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

[1792?] Spall ANZANi, Lazzaro. Opusculi due sopre le anguiUe, dove
singolarmeiite si ragioua di quelle cbe se pescauo uelle valle di
Comaccbio. <Opere [ed. Milano, 1826], iii, p. 518. Apendice
ai Viaggi alle due Sicilie, vi, [1752.]

[Au attempt to overtlirow the claim of Mondini.]

1803. Amoeetti, Carlo. Osservazioni sulle Auguille. <Mem. Soc.
Italiaua, x, 1803, pp. G79-680.

1807. MiTCHiLL, Samuel L. Facts coucerniug the Generation of Eels.
<N. Y. Medical Kepository, iv, 2d liexade, 1807, pp. 201-203.

[Records tlie independeut discovery of eel ovaries in eels from Long
Island. ]

1809. Care, John. On the Generation and other obscure facts in the
Natural History of the Common Eel. < Philosophical Maga-
zine, xxxiv, 1809, pp. 272-277.

1815. Clinton, De Witt. An Introductory Discourse [before the
Literary and Philosophical Society of Kew York], delivered
on the 4th of May, 1811. < Trans. Literary and Philosophical
Society of Xew York, ii, 1815, pp. 17-184.

[In note AA., pp. 146-148, Clinton exjjresses tlie following opinion: "The
eels migrate every autumn to the sea for the purpose of propagation, and the
young ones return up the streams iu spring and summer in immense num-
bers. Some stay in fresh water all the year, but they do not breed; and it
seems to be a fact well established that they do never breed in fresh water,
the periodical descent of the old ones to the ocean and the ascent of the
young ones fi-om thence prove that the scene of their propagation is in the
sea itself."]

1815. MiTCHiLL, Samuel L. The Fishes of New York described and
arranged. < Trans. Literary and Philosophical Society of New
York, i, 1815, pp. 355-492, 6 plates.

[Discussing the eel, p. 360, Mitchill remarks: "The roes or ovaries of eels
may be seen, by those who will look for them in the proper season, like
those of other fish. By inattentive observers they may be mistaken for
masses of fat."]

1822. Carlisle, Arthur. On the Breeding of Eels. < Philosophical

Magazine, lix, 1822, pp. 109-110.
1824. Eathke, Martin Heinrich. Ueber den Darmkanal und die

Erzeugungsorgane der Fische. <Neueste Schriften der Natur-

forschenden Gesellschaft zu Danzig, i, part iii, Halle, 1824, p.

(1221); Wiegmann's Archiv, i, 1838, p. 299.

1828. Mondini, Carlo. On the Generation and Migration of Eels.

< Edinburgh Journal of Science, ix, 1828, pp. 328-330.

[Not seen. Title from Cams aud Engclmauu.]

1829. Davy, Sir Humphrey. Salmonia, or Days of Fly Fishing, &c.

Loudon, 1829.

[Refers to the "eel-fairs" of England, describing the ascent of the young
brood into Loch Erue.]

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 115

1831. Yaeeell, William. Ou the Generation of Eels and Lampreys.

< Proceedings of the Committee of the Zoological Society, i,
1831, pp. 132-134.

1834. Yak KELL, William. On theEeproductionoftheEel. < Report,

British Association for the Advancement of Science, 1833 (1834),

PI). 44G-447.
1838. Kathke, Martin Heinrich. Ueber die weibliche Geschlechts-

werkzenge des Aales. <Archiv fiir Naturgeschichte, iv, 1838,

pp. 299-301.

1838. Deslongchamps, Eudes. Snr le Mode de Propagation des

Angnilles. <L'lnstitnt, vi, 1838; Suppl., pp. 133-134.

1839. JoANNis, L. DE. Notice sur la Partnrition et la G6n^ration des

Angnilles. < Revue Zoologiqne, 1839, pp. 48-53.
1839. JoANNis, L. DE. Xotice sur la Generation des Anguilles.

<Comptes Rendus, Academic des Sciences, Paris, viii, 1839,

pp. 301-312; L'Institut, vii, 1839, p. 07.
1842. HoHNBAUM-HoENSCHUCH, Eeinhold. De Anguillarum Sexu

ac Generatione. Inaugural dissertation. Greifswald, 1842.

[According to Jacoby, this paper contained the first figure, since that of
Mondiui, of the ovary of the eel, and the first illustration of its api^earance
under the microscope. ]

1845. Panizza, Bartolomeo. Memoria sulla Lampreda Marina.

< Mem. dell' lustituto Lombard© di Scienze, Milano, ii, 1845,

p. 48.

[Panizza here refers to the death of male lampreys after their rej)roduc-
tive functions have been performed.]

1848. ScHLUSER, GuiLiELMUS. De Petromyzontum et Anguillarum
Sexu. Inaugural dissertation. Dorpat, 1848. 8°. p. 42.

[In this paper, according to Jacoby, Schliiser contradicts the opinion of
Horuschuch that eels might possibly be hermaphrodite, advancing the idea
that male Is are either very few in number or that they differ much from
the females in size or appearance.]

1841. Ceepltn, Friedrich Chkistian Heinrich. Ueber die Fort-

pflanzungsweise des Aals. < Archiv fiir Katurgeschichte, vii,
1841, pp. 230-232.

1842. WiDDRiNGTON, S E. [Captain, Royal ]S^avy]. On the Eel and

the Fresh-water Fish of Austria. < Annals of Natural His-
tory, viii, 1842, pp. 207-210.

[Claims that the absence of eels in the lower Danube is due to the admix-
ture of water from cold Alpine streams. ]

1850. Rathke, Martin Heinrich. Bemerkungen iiber einen hoch-
triichtigen Aal. < Miillers Archiv fiir Anatomic und Physio-
logic, i, 1850, pp. 203-200.

[For comment on the work of Rathke, see the translation of Jacoby's me-
moirs, Report U. S. Fish Commission, iii, (1874), 1876, p. 727.]

116 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

1850. Costa, Oronz. Gabriel. Storia eel Anatomia dell' ADguilla e
Monografia della nostrali Specie di questo Genere. Kaples,
1850. 40, with 9 plates.

1859. VoGT, Carl. " Kunstliche Fisclizuclit." Leii)zig, 1859.
[Refers to the inouutiug of the young eels in France, p. 52.]

1861. CosTE, p. Voyage d'Exploration sur le Littoral de la France et
de ritalie. Paris, 18G1.

[On p. 49 Coste discusses the peculiar supjjoaed sterile forms, known
in Comacchio by the name " Pascente."'}

1863. SiEBOLD, Carl Theodor Ernst von. Die Siisswasserfische
Mitteleuropas. Leipzig, 1863.

[In this work, pp. 348-352, von Siebold suggests the idea that the seden-
tary eels of the inland waters were permanently sterile individuals. He ad-
mits that the eels may reproduce either by parthenogenesis, by copulation,
or that they may even be hermaphrodites. ]

1866. Desmarest, M. <Eevue et Magazin de Zoologie, 1866, pp. 161-

165.

[ Observations on an eel kept in a tank of water for the last thirty-seven
years. ]

1867. Jacoby, L. Ueber deu Kuocheubau der Oberkinnlade bei den

Aalen. < Inaugural dissertation of L. Jacoby, witb 8 plates.
Eepriuted in Giebel & Sieweit's Wissenscliaftliche Zeitschrift,
Sept. and Oct., 1867. Halle, 1867.

[CoucerniDg the bony structure of the upper jaw of the eel.]

1872. Ercolani, Giovanni Battisto. Del Perfetto Ermafroditismo
delle Anguille. < Mem. dell' Academia delle Scienze di Bo-
logna, 1872, p. 529. ■*

[In this paper "Upon the perfect hermaphroditism of eels," Ercolani
maintained that the snaky-like folds of fat formerly noticed near the ovary
were nothing else than the true sperraaries of the eel, and that upon the left
side of the animal the spermary developed into a true testicle, while the one
upon the right side shrunk up and became functiouless. The spermatozoa
(supposed) observed by him have been pronounced by Syrski and others
to have been founded on a false interpretation of the molecular movement
of the fat particles. ]

1872. Baird, Spencer F. Generation of Eels. < Annual Record of
Science and Industry, 1872 (1873), p. 299.
[A review of Ercolani's paper. ]

1872. Crivelli, Balsamo, and Maggi, L. Intorno agli Organi Essen-
ziali della Eeproduzione delle Anguille. < Mem. del Instituto
Lombardo di Scienze e lettere a Milano, xii, 1872, pp. 229-240,
with plate; Wiegmanns Archiv fiir Naturgeschichte, 1, 1872,
p. 59 (German translation). Review by Canestrini, Atti Soc.
Padua, i, 1872, pp. 70-74.

[In this paper, read fourteen days later than that of Ercolani, the authors,
like Ercolani, considered the folds of fat nest to the ovary to be the male
organs. While they, too, advocated the hermaphroditism of the eel, they
maintained that the active male organ was located upon the right side of
the animal. They described spermatozoa (supposed) found by them in this
organ.]

¥

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 117

1874. Daeeste, Camille. Monograpbie de la Famille des Pois-

sous Anguillitbrmes. <Comptes Reudus de I'Academie des

Scieuces, Paris, Ixxix, i^p. 988-990.

[An abstract of this pai^er is giveu above iu the section on number of
species of eels. ]

1874. Eberhaed, Dr. R. [of Rostock]. Die Fortpflauzimg des Aales.
< Gartenlaube, 1874, p. 120.

[Identities the young of Zoarcvs riviparua as young eels.]

1874. Syeski, Dr. [Professor iu University of Lembiu'g.j Ueber die

Reproductious-Organe der Aale. < Sitzungsb. d. k. Akad. d.
Wisseuscli., Wieu, Ixix, 1874, April, pp. 315-326, 2 cuts.
[Dated Trieste, March 15, 1874.]
[The famous paper iu which the discovery of the male eel was announced.]

1875. Syeski, Dr. Degli Orgaui della Reproduzioue e della Fecouda-

zioue del pesci ed iu specialita delle Anguille. <Bolletino

delle Societa Adriati'ca di Scieuze iS"aturali iu Trieste. Xo. 1,

pp. 10-32, Dec. 1874. Trieste, 1875 (with figures).

[Translated for Report of U. S. Fish Commission. Part iii, pp. 719-734.
See below.]

1875. WiTTMACK, Dr. Ludwig. Beitriige zur Fischerei-Statistik des
deutscheu Reichs sowie eines Theiles vou Oesterreich-Uugarn
uud der Schweiz im Auftrage des Deutscheu Fischerei-Vereius
bearbeitet vou Dr. L. Wittmack. Circular des Deutscheu
Fischerei-Vereius, i, 1875. 4^, pp. 251, (1) 2 foldiug tables and
a map. The Eel, pp. 124-129.

[An excellent summary of facts concerning the distribution of the eel in
Germany, with special reference to jihysical characters of the water, also
discussions of mooted points iu its life history, and statistics of its capture
and use. ]

1875. Daeeste, Camille. Resume d'uue Mouographie des Poissous

Auguilliformes. < Archives de Zoologie Experimeutale et Ge-

uerale, Paris, iv, i)p. 215-325; Comptes Reudus de I'Academie

des Scieuces, Paris, Ixxxi, pp. 159-162; Auuals aud Magazine

of Xatural History, (4), xv, p. 304, xvi, p. 442.

[Confirms the observations of Syrski. Records discovery of males of An-
guiJla mannorata, a species native to India.]

1876. De la Blancheee, H. Geueratiou de I'Auguille. < Bulletin

de la Societe d'Acclimatatiou, 3°^® ser., iii, 1876, pp. 489-494.
[Confirming the discovery of Syrski from observations in France.]

1876. DriGAN, J. Is Access to the Sea a Necessity to Eels ? < Transac-
tions Xew Zealand Institute, viii, pp. 221.

[Claims that eels thrive in certain land-locked lakes in New Zealand
where access to the sea is impossible.]

1876. Syrski, Dr. Lecture on the Organs of Reproduction and the Fe-
cundation of Fishes, and especially of Eels. < Report U. S.
Fish Commission, iii (1874), 1876, pp. 719-734, 23 figures.

118 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

1877. Dallmer, Herr [Head Fislimaster in Sclileswig]. Fische und

Fischerei im slissen Wasser. Segeberg, 1877.

[An account of young eels found in an empty sack in wliicli dead eela
had been transported. Not seen. Title from Benecke. ]

1877. Land, Gordon. Fresh and Salt Water Eels. < Forest and

Stream, viii, 1877, p. 261.

[Records capture of eels in Grand River, a tributary of Lake Erie on
Canada side; in Conejos River, 1,000 miles from Gulf of Mexico, and in
tributary Platte River above Denver, Colo. ]

1877. EoosEVELT, Egbert B. New Discoveries respecting Eels.

< Forest and Stream, viii, 1877, p. 207.

[Advances the idea that eels lived in fresh water in his trout ponds on
Long Island.]

1878. Ballmer, Herr. Ueber die Fortpflanznng der Aale. < Dentsche

Fischerei-Zeitung, i, 1878, pp. 1-3, 9-10, 17-18.

[This interesting paper is discussed in above in section xiii. A transla-
tion in part appeared in Chicago Field, 1878.]

1878. ScHOCH, Dr. Gustav [of Zuricli], and Head Fislimaster Dall-
MER. Noch ein Beitrag zur Aalfrage. < Deutsche Fischerei-
Zeitung, i, 1878, pp. 57-58 (Feb. 19).

[A discussion between Schoch and Dallmer in which there are many words
and few demonstrations. Dr. Schoch, of Zurich, presents the following con-
clusions stated to him by Jacoby as summing up the points which maybe con-
sidered as essentially substantiated : First, the eel is a fresh-water fish, which
passes the greater part of its life in fresh water, but sj^awns in the sea. Second,
it is extremely improbable that the eel brings forth living young. Third,
the river eel of the headwaters or upper portion of the rivers is almost
always a female, with undeveloped ovaries. Fourth, at the age of four
years the eel goes down to the sea to spawn, and never returns to the fresh
water. Fifth, by the deposit of the eggs the life of the female is greatly
endangered, sometimes eels being found by thousands near the mouths of
rivers with the ovaries entirely empty. Sixth, the descent of the eel to the
sea does not appear to take jilace at any definite period ; it probably, how-
ever, relates to the spawning season. Seventh, the male eel is always
much smaller than the female, none of the former being known over fifty
centimeters in length. Eighth, the males never ascend high up toward the
headwaters of the rivers, but keep either continually in the sea or in the
brackish water or the lower reaches of the stream. Thus a male eel has
never been found in the Rhine from Basle upward. Ninth, nothing is known
definitely about the spawning season. Tenth, according to all that is known,
it is probable that the eels spawn in the deep sea, perhaps not very far from
the mouths of the rivers. ]

1878. Abbott, C. C. Notes on Fishes of the Delaware River. < Re-
port U. S. Fish Commission, iv, 1875-'76 (1878), pp. 826-845
(p. 82).

[Abbott acquits the common eel of the charge of destroying large quantities
of ova of other fish, but states that this is a characteristic habit of the lam-
prey. This fish, which is found occasionally hibernating in the soft mud at
the mouths of some of the inflowing creeks, appears to come from the bay or

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 119

1878. Abbott, C. C. — Contiuued.

ocean (at any rate, from tlie lower portion of the river) in immense num-
bers, early in March, and remains about the rocks at the head of tide- water
for some time, as though waiting for the coming shad and herring. With
the shad they pass up the river beyond tide- water, and in the rapid, rocky
portions of the river, having deposited their own ova, they wander over the
breeding grounds of other fishes, and devour every egg they can find. "I
have found lampreys in Crosswick's Creek in the mouth of May gathering
up the eggs from suntishes' nests; and several times, when at the shad fish-
eries, I have taken small lampreys — from five to seven inches in length —
that were attached to shad, with their sucking disks (mouths) firmly closed
on the vagiual orifice, through which they were sucking the eggs."]

1878. Kaumann, Herr [of Halle]. Zur Aalfrage. < Deutsche Fisch-
erei-Zeitung-, i, 1878, pp. 214-215, June 2.

[" On the eel problem." Generalizations, apparently of little moment.]

1878. N. Y. Evening Post. Where do Eels Breed "? Seth Green's solu-
tion of a piscatorial problem. < K. Y. Evening Post, Aug.,

1878.

[Seth Green maintains that eels breed only in salt water; describes the
mounting in the Hudson Eiver, and, mirahile dictu, says that eels are hybrids
(of what origin not stated), and that they never contain eggs or reproduce
their own kind. Mr. Green's views are doubtless misrepresented by there-
porter. ]

1878. Finn, W. [of Berlin]. Zur Aalfrage. < Deutsche Fischerei-Zei-

tung, i, 1878, p. 254, Aug. 13.

[" On the eel question." Herr Finn calls attention to criticisms on Ball-
mer's paper by Gerhard v. Yhlen, of Sweden, and Arthur Feddersen, of Den-
mark, and suggests several objections to the idea that eels are born only in
salt water. ]

1878. Sellin, W. [" On Xematoid Parasites mistaken for Young Eels."]

< Archiv des Vereins der Freunde der Naturgeschichte in

Mecklenburg, xxxi, 1878, pp. 111-112.

[Not seen. Title from Zoological Record. ]

1878. Editorial. Propagation of Eels. < Sunbury (Pa.) American,

Aug. 21, 1880.

[Quoting from London "Country" and "Augsburger Abend-Zeitung"
Eberhard's observations.]

1878. Baird, Spencer F. Propagation of Eels. < Sunbury (Pa.)

American, Aug. 30 or Sept. 0, 1878.

[Letter, dated Gloucester, Aug. 27, 1878, criticising Eberhardt's article on
propagation of eels, first published in the Gartenlaube.']

1878. Mather, Fred. An Eel has 9,000,000 Eggs. < X. Y^ Times,

Dec. 13, 1878.
1878. Anonymous. Professor Packard's Discovery. <X. Y. Sun, Dec.

8, 1878.
1878. KoosEVELT, EoBERT B. Habits of Eels. < Forest and Stream,

June 13, 1878.

[A reiteration and recapitulation of the claims that eels spawn in fresh
water in the writer's Long Island ponds. ]

120 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

1878. EoosEVELT, Egbert B. Reproductive Habits of Eels.

< Transactions of the American Fish Cultural Association,

seventh meeting, 1878, pp. 90-98.

[Mr. Koosevelt maintains that eels were hatched in fresh water in his
trout x>onds, on Great South Bay, Long Island. ]

1878. Cape Ann Advertiser. Bobbing for Eels by Moonlight.

< Cape Ann Advertiser, July 19, 1878, p. 2.

1878. Cape Ann Advertiser. The Eel Fisheries of South Deer Isle,
Maine. < Cape Ann Advertiser, Dec. 20, 1878, p. 4.

1878. "Once a Fisherman." The Great Eel Question. <K. T.
Evening Post, Oct. 4, 1878.

[Another man who mistakes intestinal worms for small eels.]

1878. Schmidt, Herr. [" On the Economy of the Eel."] < Archiv des

Vereins der Freunde der Naturgeschichte in Mecklenburg,
xxxi, pp. 102-110.

[Not seen. Title from Zoological Record.]

1879. Roosevelt, Robert B. Reproductive Habits of Eels. < Trans-

actions American Fish Cultural Association, eighth meeting,
1879, pp. 32-44.

[A summation of recent discoveries, the author still maintaining that eels
breed in fresh water. ]

1879. Sawyer, J. G-. [of Sawmill Rift, Pike Co., Pa.] That Male Eel.
<New York Sun, May 17, 1879.

[An observer forty years familiar with the fisheries of the Delaware River
describes the diiferences between male and female eels ; gives an account
of the mounting of the young eels in the Delaware about June 1, and speaks
of the abundance of eels in Metaqua Pond, Sullivan County, and other in-
land waters in that vicinity separated from the sea by high waterfalls.]

1879. Putnam, Frederick W. "Mr. F. W. Putnam exhibited a
specimen of the common eel {AnguiUa hostoniensis)J^ < Pro-
ceedings Boston Society of Natural History, xix, 1879, pp. 279-

280.

[Notes on recent history of this discussion. Attention called to the eggs
in the specimens exhibited, all of which were "silver bellies." The ques-
tion asked, " AVill ' golden bellies' prove to be males?"]

1879. DuNKER. Geht der Aal in Erbsenfelder ? < Deutscher Fischerei-
Verein, ii, 1879, Nov. 4, pp. 357-358.

["Do eels frequent pea-patches ?" — a discussion of the question.]
1879. iSTiCKLAS, Carl. Der Aal {AnguiUa vulgaris). < Deutscher
Fischerei-Yerein, ii, 1879, Oct. V, pp. 326-328. Extract from
" Lehrbuch fiir Teichwirthschaft."

[A popular synopsis of the natural history of the eel from the standpoint
of the tish-eulturisT. ]

1879. Haack, H. Die Einfiihruug von Aalbrut in deutsche Gewasser.

< Deutsche Fischerei-Zeitung, ii, 1879, March 4, p. 65.
[Practical suggestions to fish-culturists concerning the planting of young

eels. ]

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 121

1879. Packard, A. S., jr. The Breeding Habits of the Eel. < Ameri-

can Naturalist, xiii, 1879, pp. 25-30, and 125 (a correction).

[On the 18th aud 20th of February, 1879, Dr. Packard found three speci-
mens which were supposed to contain the organs of Syrski, and in which he
thought he detected the presence of living spermatozoa. He subsequently
came to the conclusion that the movements observed by him were simply
Browuian movements among the fat corpuscles, and that the supposed
spermatozoa were only yolk particles. See, also, Zoologischer Anzeiger,
April, 1879, p. 193; Jan. 13, 1879; April 21, 1879.]

1880. Ballou, William HosEA. 'Eelii {Anguilla acutirostris). < Chi-

cago Field, xiv, 1880, pp. 291-292.

[A description of the eel fisheries of Oswego River, New York. Claims
that eels spawn in Oneida Lake. ]

1880. Heemes, Dr. Otto [Director, Berlin Aquarium.] Ueber Aalbrut

und Aufzucht junger Aale. <Circular, Deutscher Fischerei-

Verein, 1880, Feb. 12, No. 1, pp. 23-25.

["Concerning young eels and their propagation." Describes the mount-
ing of the young eels in June in the river Elbe ; gives directions for trans-
porting young eels.]

1880. Hermes, Dr. Otto. Ueber Aalmannchen und Aalweibchen.

< Circular, Deutscher Fischerei-Verein, 1880, No. 2, March
27, pp. 55-57, cut.

[ ' ' Concerning male eels and female eels." Dr. Hermes gives a brief his-
tory of the search for male and female eels, with an account of the discov-
ery of male eels by Syrski. He recounts the external and internal marks
of males and females, as indicated by Syrski and Jacoby.

Dr. Hermes, visiting the fish market of Trieste in company with Dr.
Syrski, found fifteen males among twenty selected according to these indi-
cations, but in Berlin could find none. He indorses the opinion that males
occur as a rule only in the sea and in the mouths of rivers. He caUs atten-
tion to the importance of searching for male eels on the coasts of the German
Ocean aud the Baltic, and advises that examinations shall be confined to
examples less than 18 inches loug, since the male eel rarely exceeds this size.

1880. Hermes, Dr. Otto. Zur Fortpllanzung des Aals. < Deutsche
Fischerei-Zeitung, iii, 1880, June 8, pp. 244-245.

[Announces the discovery of male eels in the Baltic. Dr. Hermes examined
two lots of 72 each of eels 38 to 42 centimeters long, one lot from Wismar,
another from the region between Seeland and Laland. In each of these
lots he found 8 males.]

1880. Hermes, Dr. Otto. Zur Fortpflanzung des Aales. < Circular,
Deutscher Fischerei-Verein, vi, 1880, Nov. 25, pp. 197-201, 2
cuts; Zoologischer Anzeiger, 1881, No. 74, pp. 39-44.
["On the reproduction of the eel."]

1880. Hermes, Dr. Otto. Ueber Aalbrut und Aufzucht junger Aale.

< Oesterreich-Ungarische Fischerei-Zeitung, i, 1880, No. 11,
March 16, pp. 83-84.

[Dr. Hermes suggests methods for the transportation of young eels.]

122 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

1880. Haack, H. AcclimatisiruDg des Aales im Donaugebiete. <Oes-
teiTeicli-Ungarische Fisclierei-Zeitimg, i, 1880, No. 9, March 1,
p. 65.

[" The acclimatization of eels in the Danube" Haack proposes to effect by-
transporting several hundred thousand young eels (montee) from near the
mouths of rivers before the young males have drojjped out in the course of
their upward ascent.]

1880. LiNDENHAiN, GuiDO. Zur Naturgescliichte der Aale. <Oester-

reich-Ungarische Fischerei-Zeitimg, i, 1880, 1'I'o. 6, Feb. 8, j)p.

40-47; No. 7, Feb. 10, p. 54 ; No. 8, Feb. 23, p. 60 ; No. 9, March

1, p. 68; No. 10, March 8, p. 75; No. 11, March 16, pp. 84-85.

[A very worthless comi»ilation, subsequently severely criticised by Dr.
Pauly in the same periodical. ]

1880. Pauly, Dr. A. Die Fortpflanzuug des Aales {Anguilla vulgaris
Flemiug). <Oesterreich-Ungarische Fischerei- Zeitung, i, 1880,
No. 12, March 23, pp. 89-90; No. 48, Dec. 23, pp. 389-390 (cor-
rection to first article).

[This essay, drawn out by Lindenhain's pretentious and mendacious
article on the natural history of the eel, gives a very clear and sensible ex-
position of the present state of knowledge uj)on the reproduction of the eel,
as well as a satisfactory historical r6sum6of the subject.]

1880. [Benecke, Berthold.] Vom Aal. < Berichte, Ost- imd West-
Preussischen Fischerei- Yereins, 1880, May, pp. 33-36, 4 figs.j
Deutsche Fischerei-Zeitung, iii, Feb. 3, 1880, j). 44.

[General natural history. These articles were incorporated in the au-
thor's later work. ]

1880. Glocknee Gebeuder. Aalbriit. < Deutsche Fischerei-Zei-
tung, iii, 1880, May 25, p. 217.

[Narrates that yoimg eels were planted in the rivei- Tschirne in 1877, and

that after an extraordinary freshet in 1880, by which for the first time since

1845 the water was raised higher than a dam at the entrance to a small

pond, young eels were found in that pond. Suggests that there were eels

of three years' growth. ]

1880. DuNKER, Herr [of Stettin]. Der Aal auf der Ausstellung.

< Deutsche Fischerei-Zeitung, iii, 1880, May 25, pp. 218-219^

with cut.

[An account of the male eels exhibited at the Berlin Fishery Exhibition,
with a history of recent investigations and discoveries.]

1880. DuNKER, Herr. Vom Aale. <Ihid., iii, 1880, March 31, p. 113.
[Concerning the migrations of eels, old and young.]

1880. Danner, Hermann. Der Aal geht aufs Land. < Deutsche
Fischerei-Zeitung, iii, 1880, Oct. 26, p. 422.

[ " Eels go over the land." Narrates two instances where eels have escaped
from tanks, and have been found at considerable distances in ditches and
under stones. ]

1880. McGovERN, Hugh D. On the Curious Habits of Eels. <Trans.
American Fish Cultural Association, 1880, pp. 19-20.
[Note on the climbing power of young eels.]

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 123

1880. Jacoby, L. Der Fiscliftxiig- | iu der Lagune von Comaccliio |
nebst einer | Darstelluiig der Aalfrage | you | Dr. L. Jacoby. j
Mit zwei Tafelii. | Berlin, 1880. | Verlag Yon August Hirsch-
wald. I u. w. Unter den Linden, 08. | 8°. pp. Yi, 93 (1), plates,
map.

[A thorough and scholarly review of the whole history of the eel, with a
full account of the eel-fishery iu the lagoon of Comacchio. ]

1880. Cattie, S. Th. Ueber die Genitalien der miinnlichen Aale
und ihre Sexualuuterscliiede, Yon S. Th. Cattle., Phil. Nat.
Cand., Decent an der Realschule zu Arnheim, Holland. <Zo-
ologischer Anzeiger, June 7, 1880, pp. 275-279, 2 cuts. Also, in
translation, "On the Genitalia of Male Eels and their Sexual
Characters." < Proceedings U. S. National Museum, iii, 1880,
pp. 280-284. [Translated by John A. Eyder.]

[Gives a description of the internal and external characters of male eels.]

1880. Benecke, Berthold. Fische, Fischerei, und Fischzucht | in |

Ost- und Westpreussen. | | Von | Dr. Berthold Bene-
cke, I Professor an der UniYersitiit Konigsberg. | Mit zahlrei-

chen Abbildungen Yon Braune. | [Erste Lieferuug.] | |

Konigsberg iu Pr . | Hartungsche Verlagsdruckerei | 1880.
8°. pp. — . [Unfinished ; 320 pages published up to date.]
The Eel, pp. 173-188.

[A masterly review of the jiresent state of knowledge upon the history of
the eel.]

1881. EoBiN, C. The Male Eels comj)ared with the Females. <Annals

and Magazine of Natural History, (5), Yii, May, 1881, pp. 386-
392. [Translated from Comptes Eendus, Feb. 21, 1881, pp.
378-383,]

[Describes the male and female organs, and calls attention to the paper of
Duvemoy, who, in his judgment, described correctly the ruffle-like or male
tj-pe of the genitalia of the eel. Excej)t for this, the paper is, like those
of Dareste, Cattie, and others, simply a confirmation and extension of pre-
vious observations.]

1881. Herjies, Dr. Otto. Zur Fortpflanzung des Aales. < Circular,
Deutscher Fischerei-Verein, 1881, No. 1, Jan. 31, pp. 17-18.

["On the reproduction of the eel." States the fact that, according to
the observations of Upper Fishmaster Dalkner, the eels taken from August
to November (especially in September and October) in the Baltic along the
Flensburg-Alsen coast and in the Lesser Belt were apparently migrating
from the south to the north, this being indicated by the manner in which
the leaders of the eel-pots were attached — to wit, to the northern wing of
the eel-pot.]

1881. Hermes, Dr. Otto. Zur Aufzucht junger Aale. < Circular,

Deutscher Fischerei-Verein, i, 1881, Jan. 31, pp. 20-21.

["On the propagation of young eels." An argument in favor of select-
ing for transplanting into land-locked waters eels between one and two
years of age, rather than the miniature fish usually used for that purpose. ]

124 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

1881. HiNCKELMANN, Herr [Fishmaster at Flensbiu^g], Beitrag zur
Naturgescliichte des Aals. <Circiilar, Deiitscher Fischerei-
Yereiu, i, 1881, Jan. 31, pp. 18-19.

["A contribution to the natural history of the eel." Notes on the periods
of greatest abundance of eels about Flensbm-g and on the Danish coast.
Hinckelmann speaks of the size of the eels at different seasons, and of the
influence of the weather upon their capture. He confirms the view that
eels migrate in the fall from south to north, or from brackish toward salt
water, stating that the earliest catches are made at the south, the latest in
the most northern localities. ]

1881. Decker, Herr [Fishmaster of Altona]. Zur Naturgeschichte
der Aale. <Deutsclie Fisclierei-Zeitung, 1881, May 24, pp.
165-16G.

[An interesting communication, claiming that eels spawn and are hatched
on muddy and slimy bottoms at a depth of ten to fifteen feet.]

A lilST OF OHIO RIVER FISHES .SOr.l> IIV THF MARKETS.
By ORLAIVDO HOBBS.

Jeffersonville, Ind., March 20, 1881.
Prof. Spencer F. Baird,

Secretary Smithsonian Institution : '

Dear Sir : Mr. Luke, the postmaster at this place, called on me to
furnish a list of the fish caught at the Falls of the Ohio. I was very un-
well at the time, and too much occupied with business affairs to attend
to it at that time. I have since, by going to the fishing grounds, see-
ing the lines run and the captures by the nets, been enabled to make
the following list, that comprises about all the fish caught here. I
also send with this a list written and furnished by William Taylor &
Co., who have fished here and supplied the market for the last forty
years. They claim it is a full list, and it agrees with that I have col-
lected from every other source of information. Should there be any-
thing you wish information of at this locality, and will send directions
for properly obtaining the same, it will give me jileasure to attend to it
for you.

I have the honor to remain, very respectfully, yours,

OELANDO HOBBS.

LIST OF FISH CAUGHT AT FALLS OF OHIO.

Stizostethium vitreum var. salmonemn (Raf.), Jor. & Copeland. — White
Salmon.

Stizostethium vitreum (Mitch.), Jor. & Copeland. — Black Salmon.

Percopsis (juttatus, Ag. — Trout Perch.

Ferca fluviatilis, Linn. — Yellow Perch.

Pomoxys annularis^ Raf. — White Perch, Bachelor Perch.

Buhalichthys urus, Ag. — Black Buffalo.

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 125

IclitliyohuH huhalus, Ag. — Bufltalo Perch.
Cyclepfus eJongafus, Eaf. — Long Buflfalo.
UxogJossiim maxllUngua^ Kaf\ — Stone-Toters.

Carpiodes , Kaf. — Carp.

Catosiomus commersonii (Lac), Jor. — Sucker.

Myxostoma macrolepidota var. duquesuil (Les.), Jor. — Eed Horse.

Myxostoma mncrolepldota var. macrolepidota (Les.), Jor. — Black Horse.

Ftychostom us . — Mullet.

Pomolohus chrysochloris, Eaf.— Skip-jack, Ohio Herring.
Alosa sapidissima (Wilson), Storer. — Sea Shad, Potomac Shad.
Dorysoma cepediana (Les.), Gill var. heterura (Eaf.), Jor. — Hickory Shad..
AmhlopUtes rupestris (Eaf.) — Eock Bass, Goggle-eye.
Hyodon tergisus, Les. — Tooth Herring.

Lepomls , Gill. — Common Suntish.

Micropterm paUidus (Eaf.), Gill & Jor. — Black Bass.
Micropterus mlmoides (Lac), Gill. — Yellow and Green Bass.

Semotihis , Eaf. — Common Chub, Silversides.

CeratichthySj Baird, — Horned Chub.

Ichtluchirus punctatus (Eaf.), Jor. — Blue and Channel Cats.

Amiurtis . — Yellow Cats.

Amiurus . — Bull-head Cats.

Pelodichthys olivaris (Eaf.), Gill &> Jor. — Mud Cats.

Pol yodon folium, Lac — Spoon-bill Sturgeon.

Acipenser ruhicnndus, Les. — Eed Sturgeon.

Scapliyrhyncliops platyrlujnclius (Eaf.), Gill. — Shovel-nose Sturgeon.

Lepidosteus ossetis (L.), Ag.^Gar Pike.

Litholepis spatula (Lac), Jor. — Alligator Gars.

Lepidosteus plafystomus, Eaf. — Short-nose Gar-Fish.

AnguiUa rostrata (Les.), DeK. — Yellow or Golden Eel.

Anguilla rostrata. — Common Black Eel.

Snapping Turtle, Black and Yellow Soft-shell Turtles, Water Dogs.

NAMES OF OHIO EIVER FISH.
WiUiam Taylor & Co.'s list of fish.
White Salmon. i Coal Boat Cat. .

Black Salmon.

^Miite and Yellow Perch.

Yellow and Blue Cats.

Mullet.

Potomac Shad.
Goolem.

Black Buffalo. 1 Sturgeon.

Buiialo Perch.

Carp.

Tooth Herring.

Eock Bass.

Black and Yellow Bass

Green Bass.

Sunflsh.

Stone-Toters."

Black and Eed Horse.

Spoon Bills.

Hickory Shad.

Grin del and Pike.

Jackflsh, Silversides. | shell Turtle.

XoTE. — The scientific names of the fish, as given by Mr. Hobbs, have
been changed to make them agree with recent nomenclature. In some
cases it is not certain that the species indicated is really the species of
the market. — Ed.

Dogfish.

Flat and Bull-head Cat.

Silver and Gold Eel.

Bachelor Perch.

Goggle-eye.

Chub.

Skip -jack.

Shovelfish.

Horned Chub.

White Shovelfish.

Water Dog.

Black and Yellow, Hard and Soft

126 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION

JSX

S6

N*

?1

OIV THE ITIATURE: illALE .^EXUAIi OR«;}ANS OF THE COlVGER-EEIi
(Conger vulgaris), "WITH SOME OBSERVATIONS OTV TH£ iriAr,E OF THE
COMMON EEIi (Anguilla vulgaris Fleming).*

By I>r. OTTO IIERilI£S,

Director of the Berlin Aquarium.

Since Syrski, in 1874, discovered the organs in Anguilla vulgaris^

S which have been named after him,

and which have been regarded as
the male reproductive organs by
himself and most other zoologists,
the discovery of a sexually mature
male only remained to be made to
finally settle the question of the
sex. Up to the present time all
the efforts made to attain this de-
sired result have been fruitless. The
histological investigations pursued
by S. Freud upon the Syrskian lobu-
lated organs, seemed indeed to lead
with greater probability to the con-
clusion that they were testicular in
nature, nevertheless the failure on
all hands to find sj^ermatozoa re-
mained the missing link in the
chain of evidence needed to confirm
Syrski's discovery.

EXPLANATION OF FIGUEE A, p. 126,
AND B, p. 126.

A. Mature male reproductive organs of a
specimeu of Conger vulgaris 74<=™ long.
Oue-lialf natural size ; a, intestinal
canal ; d' , upper, d" , middle, d'" , lower
portion of the liver, thrown over to
left side; /, swimming-liladder; g, gall-
bladder; /i, anal opening; ii, ii, is, ii,
lobes of the left testicle; &i, 7^2, fcs, fc^,
fcs, tlie five lobes of the right testicle ;
I, bursa seminalis ; in, bladder ; p, mem-
branous border fringing the free edge
of the testicle.

B. Spermatozoa.

. z8

*Ueber reife miinnliche Geschlechtstheile des Seeaals (Co«<7er vulgaris) VLm\ einige
Notizen iiber den miinnlichen Flussaal (Anguilla vulgaris). Von Dr. Otto Hermes,
Director des Berliner Aquariums. Zoologischer Auzeiger, 1881, No. 74, pp. 39-44.
Translated by J. A. Ryder.

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 127

The spermatozoa said to have been discovered in a male eel {Angiiilla
bosfoniensis), according- to Dr. A. S. Packard, jr.,* turned out to be an.
illusion. The announcement of this discovery was recalled in the
Zoologischer Anzeiger, II, No. C

2G, p. 193, as follows : " The
motile bodies were not sper-
matozoa but. 3'olk particles."
This correction was over-
looked by Yon Siebold's as-
sistant. Dr. Paul,t as well as
by S. Th. Cattiet of Arnheim,
although the latter had read
Jacoby"s§ paper, in which, at
page 44, the foregoing ex-
l)ression is mentioned, and
which he himself has also
cited in substance in the sum-
mary given by Jacoby.

EXPLANATION OF FIGURE C.

C. Undeveloped female reproduc-
tive organs of Conger vulgaris
84cm long. Oue-laalf natural
size ; a, stomach ; b, caecal ap-
pendix of stomach ; c, spleen ;
e, right ovary ; e', left ovary ;
/, swimming-bladder; g, gall-
bladder; h, anal opening; m,
urinary bladder ; j>, base of the
left ovary.

The reproductive organs of
Conger vulgaris are very simi-
lar to those of Anguilla vul-
garis / in the undeveloi^ed
condition they have the ova-
ries lying in the same posi-
tion, in the form of a ruffle
or frill-like band of relatively
larger size. Conger vulgaris
attains almost double the size
of Anguilla vulgaris ; examples measuring two meters (6 feet) are not
uncommon. The ovaries also develop when the animal is in confine-
ment, and I am convinced that this is often the cause of the death of
the animal under such conditions. Upon opening some Conger eels

* Zoolog. Anzeiger, II, No. 18, p. 15.

t Oesterreichische Fischerei-Zeitung, 1880, No. 12, p. 90.
t Zoolog. Anzeiger, III, No. 57, p. "275.

^Dr. L. Jiicoby, Der Fischfaiig in der Lagune von Comacchio. Berlin, Hirsch-
Tcald'sche Buchhandl., 1S80.

128 BULLETIN OP THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

which had died iu the Berlin Aquarium, it was found that the ovaries
were well developed, and a specimen which died in the aquarium in
Frankfort bnrst in consequence of their extraordinary development.
The weight of the ovaries of this animal, which weighed 22J pounds,
was 8 pounds and the number of eggs about 3,300,000. The absence in
this case of the natural means by the help of which the animal could
get rid of the eggs was apj^arently the cause of death. Male specimens
of the Conger iu an undeveloped condition I had not yet had an opportu-
nity of examining. On this account, in the autumn of 1879, 1 obtained
a number of Congers caught in the vicinity of Havre, the lengths of which
would range from about 60 to 70 centimeters (or 2 to 2 feet 4 inches).
These ate greedily and grew rapidly. But one individual was backward
in its development ; so that it was easily distinguished from the others.
This specimen, the smallest in the aquarium, died on the 20th of June
of the past year, and was examined by me on the same day. I was
pleasantly surprised, as I found sexual organs very differently formed
from those which I had always met with before. From a cut in the same
a milky fluid escaped, which upon examination with a microscope en-
larging 450 diameters, was found to contain a vast number of sj)erma-
tozoa in the liveli^ t motion, which showed a head and tail very plainly.
There was, therefore, no doubt about the fact that I had before me a
sexually mature male of Conger vulgaris. Two portions of the milt or
testes were cut off for the purpose of farther investigation, and the eel,
74 centimeters long, placed first in spirit, then in Wickersheimer's fluid.
On the 24th of June, in com^iany with Dr. Kabl-Riickhard, the anatomi-
cal discovery was confirmed.

The testes present to the eye the appearance of long, band-like com-
pressed organs, attached along either side of the air-bladder by means
of a fold of the mesentery, and extending the whole length of the
abdominal cavity, ;tnd somewhat behind the vertical of the anal opening
I)Osteriorly. Each testicle ends in a tongue-like broader anterior and
narrower j)Osterior extremity, becoming thicker but narrower posteriorly,
and is divided into a number of lobes of unequal size by a series of
dorso- ventral emarginations. On the right side there are four emargi-
nations and five lobes. The first of these measures longitudinally 45^"™,
the second 70'"'", the third only partially distinguished from the fourth,
8'""', the fourth 43'""^, the fifth 38'"'".

An exact enumeration of the lobes of the left testicle was not possi-
ble on account of the fact that a piece 5.5 centimeters had been removed
for more extended study. The anterior part, including the space abov0
named, is 98™™ long; then follows a lobe measuring 18'"'", and, lastly,
a portion 80'"'" long. The last is divided into three i)ortions by two shal-
low oblique sulci, the portions measuring 15, 27, and 28""" long, respect-
ivel3^

The thickness of the above most developed left lobe was 9™™, its
breadth from its mesenteric attachment to its free border 18""™. On the

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 129

left side tlie free tongue-like extreuiity of the testicle extends 12™™ and
on the right side 13™™ beyond the attachment of the mesentery. The
attachment of the mesentery begins on the right side 11™™ farther for
Avard than the left. The posterior extremity of the right testicle extends
4™™ beyond the mesenteric attachment and 26™™ beyond the vertical of
the anus. The left testicle extends 38™™ beyond the vertical of the anus,
whilst its extremity scared}^ extends beyond the mesenteric attachment.
The free ventral border of both testes becomes gradually thinner, and
forms a membranous border 1"'™ broad extending beyond the opaque
parenchyma. This border is lobulated or crenulated owing to slight
marginal incisions ; it is very distinct at the anterior end of the left tes-
ticle, but is broader i^osteriorly where it is bent outwards, while at the
same time it is more deejily notched or incised.

At the base of the testes lies the canalis seminaUs or vas deferens, which
opens into the hursa seminaUs; and from the portion of testicle lying
behind the vertical of the anus a similar canal leads to the hursa semi-
naUs, from which the sperm is discharged through the jjorws genitaUs.

If one compares this description and the figures* of the lobulated
organ discovered by Syrski and called after him, there appears a strik-
ing similarity between the two. If it is borne in .^nd that in the
first case we have to do with quite undeveloped and in the Conger with
fuUy mature male reproductive organs, all doubts are put aside as to
the sex indicated by the Syrskian organs. In the case of the Conger
as in that of AnguiUa, the fact remains, as upheld by Syrski, that the
male is conspicuously smaller than the female.

As is well known, Von Siebold assumes that all the young eels which
wander into streams develop into females, while the young males
remain in the sea or at the mouths of the streams. This assumption
should not be taken literally, however, for out of 250 eels caught in the
vicinity of Cumlosen, measuring 28 to 42 centimeters, I found 13 males
or 5 per cent. Cumlosen lies near Wittenberge, and is also not less than
25 miles distant from the mouth of the Elbe. What iiercentage of males
is to be found nearer the mouth of the Elbe I have not been able to
learn on account of a lack of material. Forty eels caught in the Havel
at Havelberg were females without exception.

I found a remarkably large number of male eels in a lot of 137 caught
in the bays joining the Baltic in the vicinity of Rtigen, namely, 61 indi-
viduals or 44J per cent., while amongst those taken at Wismar and the
Danish coasts there was but 11 per cent.

Whether these facts have any relation or can give any clue to the
position of the hitherto unknown spawning places of eels, it is hoped
further investigation will show.

Although Cattie, in the paper already cited, gives it as an undoubted

*Abhandl. d. k. k. Akad. d. Wiss., April-Heft, 1874. The figure represents the liver
of AngidUa as two-lobed. It has, however, a simple, tongue-like form, and is divided
at its lower end into two lobules.

BuU. U. S. F. C, 81 9

130 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

fact that eels migrate to the sea where in the course of six to eight
weeks their sexual organs attain their full development when the old
males as well as females die after having accomi^lished the reproductive
act; there is no scientific ground, to the best of my knowledge, which
would lend support to this assumption. What was considered as only-
probable by Von Siebold and Jacoby is, as it appears, assumed by Cattie
to be proven.

Cattie farther repeats Jacoby's suggestion, that perhaps as a conse-
quence of an acquaintance with the experience of Giinther referred to
by Darwin, that in almost all fishes the male is smaller than the female,
it occurred to Syrski to investigate the smaller eels. This assertion is
without foundation. Syrski was led to his discovery without having
had any hints from others. In his paper cited above he remarks as fol-
lows upon this point: '' So I selected for my investigations the smallest
eels I could possibly find, reflecting as I did so upon the fact that in
many species of the animal kingdom the male is smaller than the
female." Syrski writes me complaiuing bitterly that any one should
compare this clear expression with the former and regard it the same,
and that he knew nothing of the views of Giinther and Darwin, with
which he was moreover made acquainted only through Jacoby's paper.

Finally, as regards the distinction of the male from the female eels by
external characters, those sent me from the Schleswig coast during the
month of November presented such great differences in their coloration
that the sender, the Eoyal Fish Inspector Hinkelmann, could indicate
beforehand the number of each sex.

The males were distinguished by a striking bronzy metallic luster,
while the females of the same size were of an almost uniform dull steel-
gray color. Amongst the males a number of examples were found
measuring 45 centimeters long, while Syrski found none over 43 centi-
meters in length. In Comacchio Jacoby was so fortunate as to find a
specimen 48 centimeters long.

OFFICIAL PAPERS KEliATING TO THE PROPOSED IIVTERIVA-
TIOIVAI. FISHERIES EXHIBITIOIV AT EDIIVBIJROH IN 1S83.

DEPATiTMENT OF StATE,

Washington, August 1, 1881.

Sib : I inclose herewith, for your information, a copy of a dispatch of
the 15th ultimo, from the vice-consul at Leith, with the inclosures, relat-
ing to the international fisheries exhibition to be held at Edinburgh,
in April next. Any remarks you may deem proper to make for the
information of the vice consul will be communicated to him.

I am, sir, your obedient servant,

ROBEET E. HITT,

Assistmit Secretary.

Spencer F. Bated, Esq.,

Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington.

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 131

"Xo. 191.] Consulate of the Fnited States,

Leith, Scotland, July 15, 1881.

Sir: I have the honor to inclose two communications I have received

regardiu;;- the international fisheries exhibition to be held in Edinburgh

in the month of April next, and I shall be obliged by your furnishing

me with the information asked for in the circular by the exhibition

committee.

I ha%"e the honor to be, sir, your most obedient servant,

A. McCASKIE,

United States Vice-Consul.
The Hon. Jajmes G. Blaine,

Secretary of State, Washington, I). C.

[ In closures. ]

1. Circular by Archibald Young, commissioner of Scotch salmon fish-
eries, dated July 7, 1881.

2. Circular by the committee of the international fisheries exhibition,
Edinburgh, dated July 7, 1881.

No. 1.

Edinburgh, 22 Eoyal Circus, Jtily 7, 1881.
Sir : I beg to inclose a circular drawn up by me and apj^roved by the
Joint committees of the town council, the Highland Society, and the
Scottish Fisheries Improvement Association, who are making arrange-
ments for holding an international fisheries exhibition in Edinburgh in
April next.

That circular, as you will see, is intended for the heads of fisheries

departments in foreign countries, and I shall be much obliged if you will

kindly inform me who is at the head of the fisheries in the country

which you represent, in order that I may send him one of the circulars.

I am, your obedient servant,

ARCH. YOUKG,
Commissioner of Scotch Fisheries.

No. 2.

International Fisheries Exhibition,

Edinburgh, 22 Royal Circus, July 7, 1881. ■
Sir : We have the honor to inform you that an international fish-
eries exhibition will be held in Edinburgh in the mouth of April next.
The exhibition will be open to exhibitors from all countries, and is in-
tended to include, as far as possible, objects illustrative of or connected
with the fisheries of the world, such, for example, as models, drawings,
and photographs of boats used in fishing and of steam-eng-ines adapted
for fishing-boats J models of fishing-boat harbors and of fishermen's

132 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

houses ; nets, lines, and fishing-tackle of all kinds both for the sea and
inland waters ; piscicultural apparatus ; live fish in tanks ; collections
of stuffed fish and aquatic birds ; life-saving apparatus, fog-signals, and
lights for fishiug-boats ; fresh fish, cured and tinned fish, and prepara-
tions for preserving fish ; models of fish losses and ladders and other
similar objects.

We shall esteem it a favor if you will bring under the notice of those
engaged in, or connected with, the fisheries in your country the fact
that such an exhibition will be held there in April next ; and if you will
also kindly inform us whether you are likely to send us many contribu-
tions.

An answer to the above may be sent to Archibald Young, esq., com-
missioner of Scotch salmon fisheries, 23 Eoyal Circus, Edinburgh.
We have the honor to be, your obedient servants.

Sir I. R. S. MAITLAND,

Barrister^
WM. SKINXEE,

Gity ClerJi, Edinhurglij

F. N. me:n'zies.

Secretary to HUjhland Society^
ARCHIBALD YOUNG,
Advocate^ Commissioner of Scotch Salmon Fisheries,
Honorable Secretaries to International Fisheries Exhibition, Edinburgh.

NOTES OIV THE MACIiEREt, FISHERY OF JSSl.
By CAPTAI]\ S. J. ITIARTIW.

Gloucestee, Mass., July 26, 1881.
Deae. Peofessoe.: There appears to be a new school of mackerel on
the coast. The vessels had lost the mackerel and could not find them.
For a week they did not get many. The mackerel that were here were
inshore, in shoal water. To use the seine, some of the vessels went offshore
as far as Cash's Pound. There were plenty of mackerel ten days ago.
They were driven to within 5 miles of the shore. For the last two days
there have been plenty of mackerel 5 miles off Thatcher's Island. The
last fish are of better quality. Three-fourths of the mackerel packed
yesterday were No. 2. There were a very few 1 arge ones among them.
The vessels are doing well. Yesterday there were 13 sail of vessels,
with 3,500 barrels. To-day there were 11 sail, with 2,900 barrels. One
vessel was out a week and caught 400 barrels. One vessel is in from
Block Island with 100 barrels of large mackerel. The schooner Edward
Webster is in from Block Island with 90 barrels of large mackerel.
The schooner Ossipee is in from the bay of Saint Lawrence and reports
no mackerel; that is good news for the fishermen. The prices of the
fish are as follows : They were sold to-day at $1 a barrel with the bar-
rel; mackerel packed sold for $5.50 a barrel for No. 2; $3.50 for No. 3.

BULLETIN OF THE UXITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 133

Barrels to-day are wortli $1.10 apiece. The inspection this year is $1.60
a barrel. If mackerel hold plenty, barrels will be worth $1.25 apiece in
a week. The George's fishing fleet report plenty of mackerel on George's.
Yesterday there were 50 sail of vessels at the wharves landing fish and
mackerel. This morning there were 45 sail, mostly mackerel catchers,
in the harl)ors for shelter. There was a fresh breeze, with rain, thun-
der, and lightning.

Your obedient servant,

S. J. MAETIK
Prof. Spencer F. Bated,

United States Commission Fish and Fisheries,

Wood's HoU, Barnstable County, Massachusetts.

NOTES OIV THEW EIVOf^AIVD FISHERIES.

By S. J. MARTIIV.

[From a letter to Prof. S. F. Baiid, United States Fish Commissioner.]

Gloucester, Mass., August 8, 1881.

Dear Professor: The harbor this morning is alive with schooling:
mackerel, and 20 barrels of good quality, mostly twos and a few ones,
were taken in the nets last night. The boys have great sport catching
mackerel off the wharves. Bluefish are plenty oii" the mouth of the har-
bor, and I think they drove the mackerel in. There are some squid in
the harbor.

The mackerel catchers have not done well during the last fortnight.
The weather has been so foggy that they had to lie in the harbors eight
days. Close to the shore the fog is not so thick, and here all the mack-
erel that have been caught were taken. Mackerel are found from Cape
Cod to Mount Desert. There are 1,800 barrels of them on board vessels
in the harbor this morning. The schooner Fleet Wing has 80 barrels of
very large Block Island mackerel, worth $25 a barrel. Mackerel sold
to-day at the low figure of $4 a barrel, with the barrel.

A new school of codfish has come on the western j)art of George's.
The fish are the largest I have ever seen at this time of the year. I
think they are a squid school, for when a fish is hauled up three or four
squid will be found in it. Squid are plenty in Barnstable Bay. One
vessel took 10 barrels there. A vessel came in from George's with 1,100
cod, which weighed 18,000 jiounds split. The vessel which took 16 bar-
rels of squid caught 21,000 pounds of cod in four days on the western
part of George's. Some vessels have taken good trips on the eastern
part of George's. The fish, however, are not so large.

I am glad some one has gone into the dogfish business. A steamer
and a schooner are catching them at Booth Bay, Maine, and selling
them to the factory at $1 a hundred fish. Dogfish are very j)lenty all
along the coast. Some vessels come in with the whole bottom eaten out
of the seine and the pocket.

134 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

MORTAIilTir OF ITr'C"I.OUI> RIVEK SAr.ltI01V IIV 1881.
By LIVIlVGSTO^r STONE.

[Extracted from letters dated July 10 and 12, 1881.]

The McCloud Eiver salmon are dying in vast quantities from some
unknown cause. The affected fish have this peculiarity, flamely, that
they appear on the exterior to be perfectly healthy fish. There are no
parasites in the gills, no fungus on the bodies, no emaciation or any
mark whatever on the outside to distinguish them from perfectly healthy
fish. I secured and dissected one a day or two ago. The inside of the
mouth and the gills seemed perfectly healthy and normal ; the heart
and liver seemed nearly as usual, but the alimentary canal and stomach
were very much congested with extremely dark blood. You remember,
without doubt, the small organ, of a deep red color, that lies at the
lower extremity of the pyloric appendages. In the fish that I examined
this organ was of an abnormal size, being three times as large, perhaps
four times as large, as in a healthy fish, and of a dark, unwholesome
color. I should say that this extraordinary enlargement of the spleen
(as we call the organ here) was a sufficient cause for death. I will ex-
amine more as soon as I can get some.

TSE FISH-EATINO €0\rS OF PROVINCE TOWN, MASSACHUSETTS.

By ISAAC HIWCKLEY.
[Extract from a letter dated July 20, 1881.]

Captain Atwood has kindly given me facts in respect to fish-eaiiing
cows. Prior to the passage of the Massachusetts statute forbidding
owners of cows to allow them to roam at will (which statute was enacted
to protect directly the beach-grass which checked the drifting of sand),
the cows flocked to the shore while the fishermen were cleaning their
catch. These cows sought with avidity the entrails and swallowed them.
They seemed willing to eat the heads also, but lacked the ability to re-
duce their bulk sufficiently to allow of this. A species of ling or blenny,.
weighing three jjounds or more, and discarded by the fishermen, was
freely eaten also by the cows. Cows when first arriving at Province-
town from the rural districts refused fish; but their owners, by adding
minced fish to their cows' rations, soon taught the cows to imitate their
neighbors in respect to eating entrails.

At this time the thirty -three cows, constituting the whole of Province-
town's stock, being " kept up," have forgotten or never learned the fish-
eating practice.

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 135

DEVELOPMENT OF THE SPANISH MACKEREL (CITBIUM MACU-

IiATUM).

By JOH^' A. RYDER.

The mackerel-batcliing operations at Mobjack Bay were conducted on
board the steamer Lookout and at Bosnian's Fish Guano TV^orks, New
Point Comfort, Va., from the 5th to the 13th of July, 1880. Spax^B and
milt were obtained in that vicinity from sixteen individuals ; the num-
ber of males and females was about the same. These ova were subjected
to as thorough and systematic an investigation as the limited time at
our disposal permitted. Some time pre\^ously Mr. R. E. Earll had
succeeded in taking some eggs in the vicinity of Crisfield which were
successfully fertilized and which hatched out in the amazingly short
period of twenty hours. In every case the eggs taken and cared for by
my assistant, Mr. W. P. Sauerhoff, hatched in twenty-four hours 5 it is
true that a few hatched somewhat sooner, but some left the egg-mem-
brane even later. I attribute this difference in the times of hatching in
the two cases to different methods of treatment of the ova or to a great
difference in the temperature of the water. The eggs taken and fertil-
ized at 4 o'clock p. m. were all hatched at the same hour the next day.
This season's experience at Cherrystone showed that when the tempera-
ture of the water was unusually low it would require nearly thirty-six
hours for the eggs to hatch, but the development was normal.

The hatching operations for the season of 1881 were conducted at
Cherrystone Harbor, Northampton County, Virginia, in the earlier part
of the season, by the crew of the steamer Fish Hawk, but were after-
wards continued on Kimberley's wharf, under the direction of Col. Mar-
shall McDonald, commissioner of fisheries of Virginia. It was not the
good fortune, however, of the latter party, of which the writer was a
member, to obtain as large a number of ova as they had been led to
expect; this was in the main due to our iuabilitj^ to control the times of
fishing with the pound nets, which were the sources whence our supplies
of spawning fish were obtained ; also in part to their distance from our
hatching station, which, as our facilities for the prompt transportation
of the crew of spawn-takers by water was inadequate during the latter
part of the time we were engaged in our investigations, added not a
little to the disadvantages under which the work was conducted. Add
to this the fact that, although the number of ripe fish obtainable was
probably sufficient for our experiments, it was learned that they seemed
for the most part to discharge their spawn only in the evening or at
night, the times when by far the larger proportion of ova were obtained.
That this fish is nocturnal in its spawning habits was still further dem-
onstrated by Colonel McDonald while on a visit to Tangier Sound,
where the Spanish mackerel is taken at night in gill-nets, a mode of

136 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

fishing not practiced at Cherrystone ; an abundance of spawners, it was
found, were taken under the above conditions at the former place, and
it was believed, from observations made at the time, that many millions
of eggs might be obtained there in a single night. From this it appears
that what is now needed to make the artificial incubation of the mack-
erel a success is to choose son^e point for our operations where the fishing
is carried on at ni^lit or in the evening. In relation to this part of the
subject the "^^riter will forbear to say anything further, as its discussion
rightfrJiy belongs to Colonel McDonald, whose observation it is ; but I
liave been informed by Professor McCloskie, of Princeton, that while
he was in company with Mr. J. S. Kingsley, during the present summer,
on the Massachusetts coast, in the vicinity of Cape Ann, the latter gen-
tleman conducted some observations on floating fish eggs which were
taken at night in a tow-net and believed to have been laid after sun-
down ; they were not identified, however. ( )va which were found float-
ing at the surface of the sea by Professor Haeckel,* at Ajaccio, oft" the
island of Corsica, and afterward at Kice, were agglutinated together in
clumps, but the species was not determined, and it was only sui)j)osed
that they belonged to some gadoid, and are hence doubtfully referred to
Motella. Edward Van Beneden t also, who describes at some length
similar adhesive floating ova, which he had obtained in the same way,
with the help of the tow-net, off Villafranca, does not identify them,
nor does he state definitely at what time of day it was supi)osed they
were spawned, but from the evidence aftorded by his time record of the
rate of their segmentation I am, nevertheless, prepared to believe that
they were laid at night. The Cyprinodonts in the si)awning season, as
far as my observations go, are much more actively engaged in amatory
play in the night than at other times, judging from the rapid motions
and splashing noise which they make in the water during this part of
the day. G. O. Sars, in his account of the development of the cod, says
nothing in regard to the time of day at w^hich this fish parts with its
ova, but the writer believes that there are strong grounds for a belief
that the bonito, or crab-eater {Elacate canadus), is a nocturnal spawner,
the same as the mackerel, from the circumstance that it was only from
individuals caught in the evening that ova were obtained, which api)ears
to be the case also, judging from our experience, \vith the moon-fish {Fare-
phippus fciber). The foregoing data, although not all of them directly
bearing upon the question of the time at which the Sx)anish mackerel
discharges its spawn, are sufiQcieutly within the scope of the evidence
needed to help us to reach a conclusion in regard to the matter so that
we will know how to proceed in the future. The artificial incubation
does not appear to be the gravest part of the problem to be solved j the

t *Die Gastrnla iiud die Eifurcliimg der Thiere. Jeuiiisclie Zeitsch., IX, 402-508,
1875, 7 pis.

t A contributiou to the history of the embiyouic development of the Teleosteans.
Quar. Journ. Mic. Sci., No. LXIX, 41-57, 1 pL, 1878.

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 137

questiou seems to be, iiiuler wliat couditious can the greatest number of
eggs be obtained I Given a sufficient quantity of these, although the
losses in hatching may be as much as 50 to 75 per cent., the number of
young which it is possible to add to those hatched out naturally will
still be prodigious.

OVARIES AND OVARIAN EGGS OF THE SPANISH MACKEREL.

The ovary of this fish is a paired organ composed of two nearly cylin-
drical sacks lying in the hinder upper portion of the abdominal cavity ;
both taper to blunt conical points anteriorly, and are joined posteriorly
into a wide common ovarian duct, which opens just behind the vent.
Attached to the walls of the ovarian sacks are a vast number of ovarian
leaflets or folds i^laced transversely, and which depend directly into the
space within the sacks. In these leaflets the ovarian eggs are devel-
oped, each one in a minute sack or follicle of its own, tne walls of which
are richly supplied with capillary blood-vessels joined to the blood sys-
tem of the parent fish. At first the ova are very small, but as the sea-
sou advances they, for the most part, increase in size, in consequence
of which the entire ovary increases in bulk. At first, when they begin
to grow larger, they are barely distinguishable from the ordinary cells
which compose the great proportion of the tissue of the ovary ; they
are in fact nothing more than greatly enlarged cells when mature, in
which we may distinguish an outer germinal layer or i)ellicle, <//>, Fig.
2, covering a store of nutritive material known as the yelk, which is
gradually absorbed as development progresses ; besides, they are cov-
ered by an egg-membrane, zr^ of extreme thinness, perforated at one
point only by a minute pore known as the micropyle, which is shown in
two i30sitions in the same &gg in Fig. 1, lying in the center of a circular
area which has faint markings running out radially from the micropylar
pore in its middle toward its margin. The micropyle is funnel-shaped
and the radial markings and area around it seem to disappear almost
entirely after impregnation. The egg-membrane may be regarded
merely as a protective covering and the micropyle as a passage-way for
the male element or spermatozoau to find its way through the egg-mem-
brane and to the germ, in order that impregnation may take place, when
the development or growth of the embryo fish will commence. The
opening also connects the space inside the egg-membrane between the
latter and the globular Q,gg or germinal mass with the water outside in
which the egg floats ; the space here alluded to does not usually api)ear
until immediately after impregnation, in consequence of which the egg-
membrane at first lies laxly on the germ within, and in the eggs of some
species, as in the shad, it is at first considerably wrinkled. It is only
after impregnation that it normally absorbs water through the micropyle
and becomes tense and perfectly globular. The history of the formation
of the egg-membrane is not very clearly established, but it appears in

138 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

the highest degree probable that it is secreted from the celhilar walls of
the sack or follicle in which the egg grows and is matured.

The youngest ova of the mackerel do not appear to be inclosed in
independent follicles; these seem to be developed only after the egg
has attained some dimensions. Very young ova are found to contain
a relatively large nucleus or germinative vesicle inclosed in a thin layer
of transparent homogeneous protoplasm, and for a considerable time
this condition seems to be maintained, but as they increase in size it is
found that, while the germinative vesicle increases in dimensions, the
protoplasmic envelope also grows in thickness, and that there is a tend-
ency to multiply the number of nucleoli or germinative spots included
in the germinative vesicle. At a still hiter period the nucleus becomes
apparently granular, and finally, when the egg is mature and ready to
rupture the follicle in which it grew, the germinative vesicle, as well
as the spots, seem to have disappeared ; at any rate it is now generally
held that when the egg has attained maturity the germinative vesicle
undergoes disintegration, andiierhaps a reorganization, by which a por-
tion of it becomes what is known in recent years as the female pro-
nucleus, which conjugates or becomes fused with a similar body called
the male pronucleus, which results from the metamorphosis of the head
of the male element, or spermatozoan, after its entry into the germinal
matter of the egg. It is this body, made up, as it is, in part of male
and in part of female or ovarian protoplasm, which constitutes the
nucleus of the first segmentation furrow across the germinal disk in
which it is embedded, and which must be regarded as the initial or
starting j)oint in the development of the young fish. It is also doubt-
less a fact that during the iirocess of division of the germinal disk we
would find the nuclei elongated with granular rays extending from
their ends through the surrounding protoplasm, as well as bands or
fibrils of denser protoplasm running from one end to the other of the
nuclear figure. When the cleavage is completed the rays and bands
appear to be withdrawn, and each pole of the formerly elongated
nucleus becomes rounded independent of its fellow, and so two nuclei
result, the dynamic or forcfe centers of two cells, the j^roducts of this
process of cleavage of the original cell. This process has been named
l-aryoJcmesis by Prof. W. Flemming, of Kiel, in allusion to the ajiparent
exhibition of the modes of motion of the matter of the life centers of
cells. Nuclear figures of great complexity, but always bipolar during
cleavage, have been described by this author and others in both animal
and vegetable tissues. That they exist and will be found well devel-
oped in the very early stages of the cleavage of the germinal disk of the
embryo fish, I have not the slightest doubt ; it will depend upon the
method of demonstration as to whether or not they will be made visible.
My reason for this statement is the fact that the early stages of the
segmentation of the germinal disk of all the species of fish ova which I
have observed closely enough are essentially rhythmical ; that is to say^

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 139

between the periods when a given set of cells divide there is a longer
interval of repose or rest, which may even in some cases be accom-
panied bj' a slight subsidence or depression of the cells which have just
divided. Brooks speaks of it in the mollusks as ar contraction of the
resulting cells. It seems to me, from what I have seen in the segment-
ing eggs of Mya and AJosa, that the term "subsidence" is more directly
applicable, since in the act of segmentation the protoplasm appears to
have a tendency to become rounded or heaped up in the two new cells,
and that afterwards or during the period of rest the protoplasm has a
tendency to subside or spread out, as a result of which the segmenta-
tion furrows become much shallower. Brooks* has noticed these phe-
nomena in ova supposed to be those of the toad fish {Batrachus imi),
and alludes to observations in other forms by E. B. Wilson and S. F.
Clarke. What first attracted my attention to the matter was the fact
that, while ova in the early stages of development were under observa-
tion, I was frequently surprised to find, after having left the microscope
for a few minutes, that a sudden and rapid change had taken place,
while no change whatever was observed previously for the space of an
hour or more. Brooks has kept a time record, which I neglected to do,
but I can say, however, that in the shad egg, in -which I have mostly
observed this phenomenon, the intervals of rest are of much shorter du-
ration than recorded by him, showing that he dealt with an egg which
developed more slowly. In the mackerel ovum, in which I have had
but little chance to observe these phenomena, the intervals of rest are
of less duration still, but inasmuch as it develops with three times the
rapidity of the shad egg, it is plain that it would be an admirable sub-
ject for investigation in respect to this point, and in which micropho-
tograi^hy would be an invaluable aid.

The early stages of segmentation of the mackerel, studied by the
writer, unless observed with the microscope, on an unsteady boat,
where such observation is almost, if not altogether impossible, were
usually too far advanced to keep track of the sets of dividing cells,
which were already too numerous, so that they would confuse the
student in his attempt to follow the changes marked by intervals of
rest between periods of acti\dty. The writer, however, must admit
that he has never been able to distinguish the nuclei of the cells as
clearly without reagents as figured by Brooks, although working with
the most approved apparatus for obliquity of illumination, and with
lenses of fine definition; but this may be due to the fact that diiferent
species were studied by us.

STRUCTURE OF THE TESTES AND GENESIS OF THE SPERMATOZOA.

The testes of the Spanish mackerel are paired organs, like the roe or
ovaries of the female, and have much the same position in the abdom-

* Altematious of Periods of Eest with Periods of Activity in the seo^menting eggs of
Vertebrates. Studies Biolog. Laboratory, Johns Hopkins University, Vol. II, 117-
118, 1 pi., June, 1881.

140 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

inal cavity, but are imicli flattened or compressed laterally, instead of
cylindrical, as in the former, and botli pour tlieir secretion tlirougli a
wide seminal duct which opens behind the vent. Their substance is
comx)osed almost entirely of a vast number of minute canals, which
have a generally vertical or oblique direction, and which open into a
wide sinus or space at the upi)er edge of the organs, and which empty
their contents into the common seminal duct. They are essentially
glandular in function, and secrete and pour out large quantities of milt
or semen during the spawning season, which is develoj)ed in the tubules
or canals already alluded to. These canals, or, more properly, semi-
niferous tubules, are lined with cells, which break up into bundles of
spermatozoa, which fall directly into their cavities, and so find their
way into the seminal sinus at the upper border of the testicle and out
through the seminal duct into the water, where they are capable, if
they come into contact with the ova discharged by the female, of effect-
ing impregnation and of establishing the development of the embryos.
The spermatic particles, or spermatozoa, are themselves very minute,
and are composed, in the mackerel, of an oval head with a very fine,
almost ultra-microscopic, tail or flagellum, which is incessantly lashed
about in the living state, so that the spermatozoan has a distinctive
wriggling, tadpole-like movement. As soon as the power to move the
lash or flagellum ceases, they may be considered as dead, and no longer
capable of effecting the impregnation of ova. They will not ordinarily
live much over an hour after being taken from the fish, with which
time their eflfectiveness ceases.

STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE UNFER-
TILIZED EGG OF THE SPANISH MACKEREL.

It is notorious that the egg-membranes of floating fish ova are ex-
tremely thin; moreover, they are not, as far as I have been able to make
out with carefully conducted observations, perforated by pore-canals, as
in the stickleback, salmon, and shad; the membrane of the ovum of the
mackerel is no exception to this rule, and is conseqT,iently not a zona ra-
diata, as defined by Balfour. It is a perfectly houiogeneous, transparent
film, less than half as thick as that covering the shad ovum, which meas-
ures approximately ^-oVo of au inch in thickness, but differs from the
latter in having minute i^apular iiromineuces on the inner surface which
project into the breathing chamber or water space around the germ, as
shown in Figs. 2, 6, 9, and 12. These prominences usually seem to be
confined to one pole or hemisphere of the membranous envelope.

The ova vary slightly in dimensions and range from -^ to ^o of ^^
inch in diameter. This variation in size is a usual feature in the ova of
fishes, but may be partly due to the unusual pressure exerted on the
ovaries when the ova are removed artificially, so that some are squeezed
from their follicles before they are quite fully mature, though it is to be
remarked that the smaller ova develop just as readily as the larger

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 141

ones, and every one is aware of the fact that the eggs of the same birds
vary considerably in size, and that such variation does not interfere
perceptibly -vrith their capability to develop. Between the egg-mem-
brane and the germ or vitellns there is always a more or less well
marked space or cavitj" filled with water which has been absorbed from
without, as is proved by the fiict that when the ova are at first extruded
the egg-membrane, in all the species studied by the writer, is more or
less relaxed or even wrinkled, and that it is only after they have been
in water for some time in the presence of spermatozoa that the mem-
brane will distend so as to render it tense and spherical. Unimpreg-
nated eggs which have absorbed water are said to be "water-swollen,"
and usually only a small percentage of them will become so in the ab-
sence of living spermatozoa, mixed with them in the water. Ova which
have been impregnated and are water-swollen, that is, have developed
the water space around the vitellus, are said to have "risen," which is
probably in allusion to the fact that in some cases — minnows and shad —
a lot of newly laid ova will by this process acquire several times their
original bulk, so that if too large a quantity of freshly spawned eggs be
put in a vessel the mass will swell in the presence of water so as to fill
the receptacle or even run over its sides, somewhat in the same way as
leavened dough would acquire increased bulk in a dough tray by the
numerous vesicles of carbonic dioxide which are evolved by fermenta-
tion and held in confinement by the tough mass of gluten and starch.
The water space may in some cases embrace more than two-thirds of
the solid contents of the sphere included by the egg-membrane, but this
space is smaller and is never at any time more than the 2^*0 of an inch
in vertical thickness in the egg of the mackerel.

Its fnnction is, doubtless, iu the main, respiratory, as suggested by
Eansom, who has actually named it the breathing chamber, and it would
seem that there is very strong evidence in favor of such an opinion, in
that most fish ova die if the water in which they are hatching is not
frequently changed. The circumstance that some fish ova are fixed by
filaments or bv an adhesive material while the water moves over them on
account of its gravity or in consequence of tidal action, would seem to
indicate that these modifications were favorable to their aeration, or
perhaps, more properly, their respiration, and exchange of salutary
oxygen for hurtful gases through the membranous and fluid coverings
of the egg. The habit which the male stickleback appears to have of
pumping water through the nest with his mouth, so as to change the
water surrounding the eggs in his charge, seems to be similarly signifi-
cant.

This cavity serves another purpose. In it the young fish may de-
velop immersed in fluid free from friction or hurtful knocks from with-
out, if it is a free swimming egg, like that of the mackerel. Its func-
tion, aside from that of respiration, w^ould then appear to be essentially
that of an amnion, or " bag of waters," such as is developed from the

142 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

edges of the germinal disk in rei)tiles, birds, and mammals, and wbicli
eventually incloses the embryos of these forms, and in which they
undergo the largest part of their development. A similar spacious
cavity api)ears to exist in the egg-cases of the oviparous sharks, and
rays, filled with water or a thin serous fluid, in which the embryo de-
velops as it absorbs the contents of the yolk sack. The same remark
applies to the eggs of the Amphibia and AmpMoxtis; so it appears that
all of the vertebrates below the reptiles have an egg-membrane, or
what answers to it, and a water or respiratory space in which the germ
or vitellus is included, and in which it undergoes a more or less com-
plete development.

The vitellus or germ included by the egg-membrane of the mackerel
is globular and very nearly fills up the cavity, bounded by the mem-
brane, so that the water space or breathing chamber is small. The
vitellus is made up of three principal portions : a thin outer germinal
layer, as shown in Fig. 2, which incloses a globular yolk-mass, in which
it is ordinarily difficult to distinguish the contour of the yolk spheres
of which it is composed. Imbedded in this yolk-mass there is always
a single oil sphere perfectly globular, highly refringent, and measuring
about one one-hundredth of an inch in diameter, and which always oc-
cupies an eccentric jjosition in the upper hemisphere of the living egg.
It is the presence of this oil sphere which causes the egg to float; the
drop of oil is always in such a jiosition as to keep the developing em-
bryo inverted or turned upon its back. This is probably due to a purely
physical cause ; the oil sphere, being the lightest part of the egg, will
always be found in its upper hemisphere, while the germinal disk or
embryo appears to be the heaviest part, and in consequence is always
found in the lowermost hemisphere looking back downwards. It is
difiicult to trace any protoplasmic filaments passing ofl' from the ger-
minal layer of the mackerel's ovum down amongst the yolk spheres, in
consequence of which it is difiicult to demonstrate the latter. It has
likewise not been my good fortune to trace and learn what is the fate
of the germinative vesicle of the mackerel egg, but it will suffice to say
that when the egg is mature it can no longer be distinguished ; nothing
whatever remains to indicate its former position, and the whole egg is
now more transparent and presents the appearance shown in Fig. 2.
The germinal layer or pellicle, however, is found to include a great
number of very minute refringent corpuscles scattered through its sub-
stance ; these disappear as the germinal disk is formed by the aggrega-
tion of the protoplasm of the germinal layer at one pole of the vitellus
to form the germinal disk. I have frequently seen them apparently
dissolve and disappear while I was observing them through the micro-
scope. Whether these represent the remains of the more fluid and
refringent germinative vesicles I am unable to say, but I am inclined to
doubt it from the fact that if the germinal pellicle is removed and
stained with haematoxylon these corpuscles do not tinge, while the pro-

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 143

toplasin iu which they are imbedded does, which appears to be a suffi-
cient proof that they are not the remains of the germinative vesicle, but
that they are merely vacuoles filled with fluid, such as are found in the
Protozoa, but which, unlike the spaces found in those animals, are not
rhjthmically contractile or pulsatile.

ORIGIN AND FOEIHATION OF THE GERMINAL DISK.

The germinal disk of the e^g of the mackerel measures one-fortieth to
one-fil'tieth of an inch in diameter, is biscuit-shai^ed, and is composed of
a light, amber- tin ted protoplasm several shades darker than the proto-
plasm which makes up the vitellus, which is remarkable for its glass-
like transparency. Normally, the disk always lies directly at one side
and apparently on the surface of the yelk, as indicated in Fig. 4 ; and
when the egg is in the water it is always immediately and exactly below
the latter. The disk may be developed independently of impregnation,
but in that case an embryo is never formed, and the egg soon disorgan-
izes, the vitellus collapses, and the whole protoplasmic mass, disk and
all, acquires a brownish, granular appearance, indicative of death and
disorganization. The disk takes its origin directly from the germinal
pellicle, which incloses the vitellus just like the rind which covers the
flesh of an orange. This layer at first thickens at one side, and its sub-
stance seems to flow gradually to the lower pole of the egg till the re-
sulting disk acquires the shape of a concavo-convex lens, with a thin,
sharp rim. Eventually the sharp rim disappears, it becomes smoothly
rounded at the edge, and the whole disk biscuit-shaped.

It is probable that an extremely thin layer of protoplasm, which orig-
inally formed i^art of the germinal pellicle or layer, still covers the
^itellus, and is continuous with the disk, and is synonymous with the
intermediary layer described by Van Bambeke and E. Van Beneden.
My reason for this statement is the fact that the disk is sometimes
found to have a thin layer of protoplasm extended outwards below its
thick rim over the vitellus, but which becomes so thin a little way out
from the edge of the disk that it becomes impossible to demonstrate it
without special methods. That the vitellus is covered by a structureless
membrane is proved by the fact that in the event of its being ruptured
its glairy contents will very rapidly escape, and its torn edges can be
seen limiting the opening or rent in its walls. The segmentation of the
thicker part of this membrane of i)rotoplasm next the disk is shown in
Fig. 4, and is also described at considerable length by Van Beneden in
the paper already referred to in a foot-note. In the crab-eater {JElacate)
a very peculiar wreath of flat cells is developed at the edge of the disk,
which, as in the ova of the su^jposed gadoid studied by Van Beneden,
appear to be continuous, with a layer of small cells below the thicker
lens-shaped part of the germinal disk.

It may be well to retain the term intermediary layer for this structure,
but if the distinguished Belgian embryologist had succeeded in follow-

144 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

ing the development of the ova which he studied a little farther along,
he would have learned, as he indeed surmises, tiiat the wreath of cells
becomes the thickened rim of the blastoderm, and that the portion of
the intermediary layer beneath the disk becomes the hypoblast. I see
no reason, however, for adopting the term blastodisc for the germinal
disk of the tish egg, for the whole of the latter, as well as the interme-
diary layer, are both unquestionably derived from the i^rimitive peri-
pheral germinal layer, the existence of which has been fully illustrated
and described in the lierring ovum by Kupfter,* though Costet describes
the formation of the germ in language which shows that he had un-
doubtedly seen and watched the T)rocess, which differs in different
species, as we shall learn when we come to discuss them. I reproduce
Coste's words belo w.| Knpffer describes the process minutely in the
herring, but states that the germ is never formed independently of the
action of the spermatozoan in that species, which is practically the fact
in the case of the shad and cod, but is not the case in ParepliipiniSy
CMrostoma, and Ceratacanthus, where a germinal disk is formed inde-
pendently of imi^regnation, but not until some time after the egg is laid.
Even in the three last-named species the process of the development of
the disk is the same, viz, the peripheral layer of germinal j^rotoplasm
aggregates at one pole of the vitellus. In some species, as in the her-
ring, shad, crab-eater, and stickleback, strands of protoplasm i)ass
inwards from the germinal layer among the yelk spheres or corpuscles
of the vitellus, so as to involve the latter in a sort of mesh work, which,
after the disk is formed, trend toward the center of the latter, forming
a i^rotoplasmic mass below the disk, and continuous with it, which prob-
ably fills a si^ace in the yelk below the disk, and which Kupffer calls
the "latebra" and Yan Beneden the ^'lentille." Upon close examina-
tion, however, these structures seem to me to be nothing but a portion
of the germinal disk, in consequence of their connection with the inter-
mediary layer lying between the latter and the vitelline globe or yelk.
The failure of more observers to witness the mode of development of
the germinal disk, and the fact that some have actually figured the seg-
mentation cavity without knowing what it was, is only explicable from

* Die Entwickelimg desHerings im Ei, in Jakresbericht der Commissiou zur wissen-
schaftlichen Untersnchiiug der dentsclien Meere Id Kiel. 4to, Berlin, 1878, p. 181.

tOrigine de la cicatricule ou du germe des poissons osseux. Comptes rendus, tome
30, 18r>0, p. 692.

t"Ses ^16meuts g6n6rateur8 resteut ^pars, diss^min^s dans tons les points de ce
vitellns, jnsqu'an moment oii Taction du male les determine a se priScipiter vers una
region de la surface oil on les voit tons se r^unir jionr constituer le disque grauuleux
que la segmentation organise plus tard."

"Quand cette curieuse e;/)i^/-aiio« des granules mol^cnlaires que doivent former la
cicatricule s'est op6r6e, I'ceuf des poissons osseux ressemble alors, mais alors seulement,
h celui des oiseaux."

The writer, in explaining the formation of the- germinal disk, is in the habit of
describing it as an aniwboid mijiration of the germinal matter toward one point on the
Titellus, which is essentially the meaning of this quotation; but the germinal matter
is not always mixed among the vitelline corpuscles, as Coste describes in Gasterosteus,
It is the case in Clupea and Alosa, but not in Gadus, CyMum, ov Belone.

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 145

the fact that most of the natm^alists who have made the study of fish
embryos a specialty hiWe had the ill fortune to have the chance to
watch only a part of the developmental stages.

THE IMPREGNATION OF THE EGG.

Upon this subject there are very few reliable observations. As Axel
Boeck truly remarks, the micropyle is often diificult to find; and what
makes the matter still more troublesome is the size of the egg, which
makes it necessary to use lenses of long working distance, and to am-
plify with high power eye-pieces. To get an egg into position is not
unfrequently a difficult performance, and by the time everything is
arranged for observation impregnation has been effected and your efforts
are wasted. It is doubtless correct to say that a single spermatozoan
is eflective in the fertilization of an egg. I have frequently found a
number of dead ones sticking fast by their heads to the egg-membrane
near the micropyle, but I have never witnessed their actual entry,
although 1 have frequently made attempts to see the phenomenon, but
so far without success. From all that we can learn it is undoubtedly
true that the presence of spermatozoa with freshly laid uuimpregnated
ova at once tends to cause them to absorb water, as is well known to
every practical spawn-taker. That their presence in the egg exerts a
great influence on the rapid formation of the germinal disk in the her-
ring, shad, and cod is equally certain. What the exact nature of the
changes may be that are first of all induced by the presence of the
spermatozoan in the egg of the Teleostean fish, we are not yet prepared
to say. Most if not all the most satisfactory observations upon the phe-
nomena of imi)regnation have been conducted on the very much more
miuute ova of invertebrates, where it has evidently been miuch easier
to see the process and follow it in detail. Its eifects are soon visible,
however, as the remarkable phenomenon of segmentation which begins
soon after fertilization has been effected.

SEGMENTATION OF THE GERMINAL DISK.

The segmentation of the germinal disk of the mackerel is essentially
similar to that of the cod. The first cleavage is transverse, resulting in
two cells. The next segmentation is at right angles to the first, and,
when completed, divides the two cells of the first cleavage into four ;
the next cleavage is in a direction at right angles to the last and results
in the formatioii of eight cells. Beyond this point the cleavage becomes
more or less irregular, except that the germinal disk remains for a con-
siderable time composed of a single stratum of cells, as shown in Fig.
3, one hour and forty minutes after impregnation. The rhythmical
nature of the process of segmentation up to this time has already been
alluded to, and it no doubt continues, but the cells soon become too
smg-ll to be followed up so as to observe the intervals of rest and activ-
Bull. U. S. F. C, 81 10

146 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

ity. At the end of tliree hours the germinal disk, as shown in Fig. 4
has undergone profound changes ; the cells are no longer arranged in a
single stratum, but in several, superimposed upon each other, which has
been the result of the segmentation of the cells of the morula stage of
Fig. 3 in a plane parallel to that of the great diameter of the disk.
At the same time there has been a wreath of flat cells segmented off from
the edge of the disk, which would be considered by some as originating
separatelj' or independently of the disk, an opinion from which I dissent
for reasons which I have already stated in dealing with the origin of
the disk from a primitively homogeneous, external germinal layer of
Ijrotoplasm.

THE BLASTODERM AND SEGMENTATION CAVITY.

In Figs. 5 and 6, a half hour later, we see that the fate of the mar-
ginal cells has been to form the rim of the incipient blastoderm, which
is beginning to spread out, become thinner, and lose its distinctive feat-
ures as a biscuit-shaped germinal disk. The inner edge of the rim of
cells Just alluded to limits the margin of the segmentation cavity of
the mackerel egg, and I can see no reason why this space should not be
considered homologous with the cavity which bears the same name in the
blastoderm of the embryo elasmobranch and chick, in both of which it
is probably of greater extent than it has been hitherto suspected. The
roof of the cavity is at first two or three or even more cells deep, but
as soon as the rudiment of the embryo fish is defined at the edge of the
blastoderm its roof soon after is found to be composed of but a single
layer of cells, corresponding to the epiblast or skiu layer, while its floor
is the intermediary layer of Van Bambeke, and corresponds to the hy-
poblast, mucous or deepest layer from which the intestine, the blood for
the most part and perhaps the notochord is derived as development
advances. With slight verbal alterations I will here quote from what
the writer has published elsewhere* : " The disk begins to spread over
the vitellus or yelk, and soon acquires the form of a watch glass, with
its concave side lying next the surface of the yelk. Coincident with
the lateral expansion of the disk, now become the blastoderm, a thick-
ening api^ears at one poiut in its margin, which is the first sign of the
apx^earance of the embryo fish. With its farther exi^ansion the embryo
is developed more from the margin of the disk towards it center ; in this
way it happens that the axis of the embryo lies in one of the radii of
the blastoderm, its head directed towards the center, its tail lying at the
margin" and continuous with the rim, which is soon two or three cells
thick, and extends all the way round the edge of the blastoderm like a
ring. " Before the embryo is fairly formed a space appears in the blas-
toderm, limited by the thickened rim of the latter, and the embryo at

* Structure and ovarian incubation of the Top-minnow (Zygouectes), " Forest and
Stream," August 18, 1881.

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 147

one side. This space, the segmentation cainfjj, is fiUed tcith fiuid and
groics tcith the groicth of the germinal disl-, as the latter becomes converted
into the hlastoderm^ and does not disappear until some time after the embryo
has left the egg as a young fish, after remaining as a sjMce around the
yelk-sack as long as a vestige of the latter remains, as may be seen in
the young of Cybium, Gadus, Elecate, Syngnathns, and Alosa."

My observations have been conducted without hardening reagents,
since it has been found that such methods abstract the water from the
embryo, and cause the segmentation cavity to collapse and be obliter-
ated, so that the only way in which the writer has been able to follow
the history of this space was to study it in the living transparent eggs,
whi(;h may be got into various positions so as to show all the x)hases of
its development in the diiferent stages of the evolution of the embryo.
I believe it will be found to be present in the blastoderms of the ova of
almost all teleostean fishes.

"Should this prove to be the fact [quoting from the same source] the
teleostean egg will be as distinctly defined, in respect to the sum of the
developmental characters which it presents, from the developing ova of
other vertebrates, as the adult teleost is from the remaining classes of
the subkingdom to which it belongs."

Later, as is shown in Fig. 7, or after seven hours, the blastoderm
has grown so as to inclose nearly one -half of the vitelline globe or
yelk, the rim is very distinct, and when viewed from above as a trans-
parent object, the segmentation cavity is visible as a somewhat creseent-
shai)ed area more transi^arent than the embryo or the rim. The embryo
bounds the concave side of the crescent and lies in immediate contact
with the yelk, except over a small space just under the fore part of the
head, which is found to be continuous with the segmentation cavity
beneath the latter ; this space will be found to be very significant, and
is the cavity in which the heart develops. In taking another look at
Fig. 7, it will be noticed that the blastoderm is a hemispherical cap,
and that on the left hand from its center to the edge of its rim there is
a thicker i^ortion shown ; this is the enibryo mackerel seen from the
side with its head end lying in the middle of the disk and its tail at the
edge. To the right hand and below a clear space is shown ; this in
like manner is the segmentation cavity seen from the side, and to the
right of it the blastodermic wal's are seen to be double, consisting in-
ternally of the hypoblast and externally of the epiblast, with a space,
sg, between them ; this is the segmentation cavity in optic section,
which is seen to extend a little way under the head of the embryo at
cr.s', to form the cavity in which the heart will be formed. To the left of
crs the keel or carina, cr, of the embryo dips down into the vitellus ; the
carina is simply the fore part of the medullary canal, which for the
most part becomes the great median nervous or spinal cord of the young
fish ; in all embryo teleost fishes it is much flattened laterally in its
fore part, and in consequence it dips down far into the yelk as a flat

148 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

tube, for such it is from the fact that a furrow appears ou the outer sur-
face of the hhistoderm kuown as the medulhiry groove which exteuds
from the head end of the embryouic area of the blastoderm to the rim
and which causes the blastoderm to be pushed dowu before it. This
groove first closes at the head of the embryo, while it remaius open for
a considerable time at the tail end. The cells of its walls form the em-
bryonic spinal canal which afterwards becomes the spinal cord, brain,
and retina of the more advanced embryo.

Fig. S represents an older embryo Spanish mackerel, eleven hours
after development began. It is seen with the head towards the ob-
server, and behind or beyond the head on the opposite side of the egg
the rim r of the blastoderm is seen through the transparent vitellus,
which will close over the latter entirely in the course of another hour.
The segmentation cavity sg is shown in optic section between the epi-
blast ep and the hyj^oblast hy, extending all round the egg except the
portion taken up by the embryo above, and that part not yet covered
by the blastodermic rim r on the opposite side of the egg.

Fig. 9 represents an egg of the twelfth hour of development with the
caudal pole turned towards the observer. The small area y is all of the
vitellus which now remaius uncovered, and the blastodermic rim is con-
tracting and will soon close at the end of the tail of the embryo, when
the formation of the blastoderm may be said to be completed. The seg-
mentation cavity sg has of course been somewhat extended on account
'of the approximate closure of the blastodermic rim. In Fig. 11 a section
is carried transversely from left to right through the opening y, which
still remains behind the tail of the embryo represented in Fig. 9, to show
how the segmentation cavity is finally limited at the caudal end of the
embryo by the blastodermic rim, which after its closure takes a large
share in the formation of the tail of the j'oung fish, as i>ointed out by
Kuj)ffer and His. It may be considered the true tail-swelling, as it
thickens into a round, knob-like prominence immediately after the in-
clusion of the yelk is accomplished. In consequence of the remarkable
extent of the segmentation cavity in fish embryos, as amply x>roved by
our studies upon a number of widely-separated genera, the yelk becomes
inclosed in a shut sack derived from and including the greater part of
the innermost embryonic layer or hypoblast, which is surrounded by a
film of fluid, and which is agaiu inclosed by an external epiblastic sack.
Besides the demonstration of this structure in the living egg I have used
the following method with success: Immerse a living embryo in a one-
half \)er cent, solution of osmic acid for a few minutes, or till the outer
sack becomes light brownish, then place it under a Fol's compressor
and gradually bring pressure to bear on the vitellus while it is under
observation in the microscope, when the outer covering, now made brit-
tle by the osmic acid, will rupture and expose the vitelline or hypoblastic
sack; the epiblastic covering will frequently open, wrinkle, and slide
back off of the vitellus like a cowl when pushed back off of the head.

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION, 149

It is this structure which Cuvier and Valencienues * alhide to in the
following- words : " Le vitellus a deux tuniques, completes I'uue et I'autre,
quoique tr^s-fines. L'exterue se continue par sa lame exterieure avec
le peau et par I'interieure avec le peritoine; I'iuterne, tres-vasculeuse, se
continue avec les membranes des iutestins et leur tunique peritoneale ;
la cavite donue directement et visiblement dans celle do I'intestin, et la
matiere du Jaune y afflue." This quotation shows that Cuvier, to whom
it is in all probability to be ascribed, was aware of the existence of a
double envelope over the yelk, but in no instance have I found what
could be considered a communication between the cavity of the intestine
and the vitellus. \^on Baer is stated by Balfour t to speak of two types
of yelk-sack, one inclosed within the body wall, and the other forming
a distinct naked ventral a])pendage of the embryo, from which it is clear
that the great German embryologist never clearly understood the man-
ner in which the vitelline globe or yelk is inclosed by the blastoderm.
Nor can I confirm Lereboullet's view that a connection of the vitellus
and cavity of the intestine exists between the stomach and liver, because
the stomach is not ordinarily differentiated in young fishes while the
yelk persists. In the young California salmon {Oncorhynchus) the mus-
cle plates grow down on either side between the epiblast externally and
the splanchnopleure internally. The hypoblast covering the remains of
the yelk is traversed externally by a network of blood vessels, as may be
learned from an examination of transverse sections through advanced
embry^os. In this way it results that the segmentation cavity is oblit-
erated or filled up during the latter part of embryonic life by the down
growth of the somatopleure and splanchnopleure between the epiblast
and hypoblast, both the splanchnopleure and somatopleure having
originated from the mesoblast. This, I believe, is essentially the mode
of development of the blastoderm in teleostean embryos and the way in
which the segmentation cavity disapjiears. Any view, however, accord-
ing to which the yelk is looked upon as a mere nutritive vesicle, and not
at all times in intimate organic union with the embryo, betrays a want
of comprehension of the way in which the teleostean ovum is developed
in the ovary, the manner of the formation of the germinal disk, the de-
velopment of the blastoderm and inclusion by it of the vitellus, and,
finally, of the relation of the heart and blood system to the vitellus.

STRUCTURES DEVELOPED IN ' THE EMBRYO MACKEREL FROM THE
ELEVENTH HOUR TO THE TIME OF HATCHINO.

Starting with the stage represented in Fig. 9, when the medullary
canal m, in section, the notochord or cartilaginous axial rod c/i, and the
somites or muscle plates on either side of the medullary canal are de-
veloped, it is apparent that the embryo by the fourteenth hour, repre-

•Histoire Naturelle des poissons, tome i, p. 399. Paris, 1828.
t Comparative Embryology, vol. ii, p. 65.

150 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMAUSSION.

sented id Fig. 10, begins to exhibit some likeness to an animal organ-
ism, but as yet the species would not be recognizable were it not known
from what parent form the egg had been obtained, though it could
undoubtedly be referred to the class Pisces, subclass Tclcostei. A care-
ful study, however, of a number of forms will enable the student to
distinguish them apart at a very early period of development. The
number of somites or muscle plates increases from before backwards;
they first appear some distance behind the rudiments of the ear, au
Fig. 8, and by the regular successive segmentation of the upper meso-
blastic plates of cells on either side of the medullary canal increase in
number backwards toward the tail, and by the time the caudal swell-
ing is developed there are about twenty muscular somites or segments
of the body. As the tail grows and is extended backwards the seg-
mentation of the muscular stratum of the mesoblast continues in the
same way from before backwards, but does not for a considerable time
involve all of the structure destined to become the lateral muscular
masses of the young fish; the i^ortion at the end of the tail remaining
uusegmeuted for some time after hatching. The muscular segments,
somites, or protovertebriE, as they have been variously named, originate
from the two tracts of mesoblastic tissue on either side of the medullary
canal, and are really the rudiments of the muscular masses, the edible
flesh portions found on either side of the backbone of adult fishes. They
appear at first in the embryo as quadrate masses lying on either side of
the medullary canal, and in embryo sharks, according to Balfour, and in
the lampreys, according to Scott, at first are said to be hollow; in our
studies we have not succeeded in demonstrating this peculiarity in
teleosteau embryos. They are nearly or quite solid in the latter.

Immediately after the tail swelling has been formed, the caudal rudi-
ment forms a blunt rounded point, which, as it is prolonged backwards,
develops a continuous median dorsal and ventral ridge or fold of epi-
blast, as shown in Fig. 13, and which becomes the natatory fold nf of
Fig. 13, from which all the unpaired fins are developed. Almost as soon
as the tail begins to grow out a strand of hypoblastic cells, v, Fig. 12,
is seen on the lower side of it, lying between the epiblastic layers of the
natatory fold, and extending to the edge of the latter; this strand of cells
appears to have been i^robably continuous with the medullary canal or
cord on the dorsal side of the embryo before the tail swelling grew out,
so as to break and obliterate its connection with the former. This strand
of cells, which is seen to be apparently tubular, is the anal extremity of
the gut, and seems to be closed posteriorly. It is found to extend for-
wards, as development proceeds, as a fiattened tube, lying Just below
the notochord or cartilaginous axis of the embryo as shown at /, Figs. 12
and 13. The intestine was probably continuous with the medullary
canal posteriorly, from the hinder extremity of which it has possibly
been invaginated from above, in which case the ffastnda stage of devel-
opment of the teleosteau fish embryo would be perfectly homologous

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 151

with that of mauj other vertebrates. Our observations, it is admitted,
do not rest upon the evidence presented by sections, but upon the ai)-
l)earances of the living transparent objects. The intestine is at first
solid anteriorly; its lumen is a mere cajiillary tube on its first ai)pear-
ance behind. It does not ai)pear to originate directly from longitudinal
folds of the hypoblast which coalese in the middle line below, in some
higher forms, but as a nearly solid band of cells just beneath the noto-
chord.

It will be proper to discuss in this place the nature of the jDeculiar
vesicle first described by Kupffer, and known as Kupfter's vesicle, but
recently renamed the postanal vesicle by Balfour.* It appears in all
the cases which we have observed either some time before the closure
of the blastoderm, or nearly at the time it closes. It is situated just
beneath the tail, between the latter and the yelk. It appears in the
Spanish mackerel before the blastoderm closes, and, as far as I can
make out, is simply a vacuole filled with fluid, the direct connection of
which with the posterior end of the rudimentary intestine, as has been
held, has still to be satisfactorily demonstrated. In some forms it per-
sists for a considerable time after the closure of the blastoderm, and is
so far anterior to the i^oint of closure that it is difficult to see how it
can stand in a post-anal relation to the gut, the anal portion of which
is developed almost at a point coincident with that where the closure
of the blastoderm takes place, and behind the jtosition of the vesicle.
Moreover it is usually asymmetrical in position and finally disappears.
Its form and position vary also in diflerent eggs, so that I am at a loss
to clearly understand its significance. • That it cannot originate at the
moment of the closure is^ proved by the fact that in some forms it is
present when the blastoderm has covered but three-fourths of the yelk.
I have never seen any communication between it and the medullary
canal ; however, its further discussion will be resumed when we come
to consider forms in which it is more prominently developed. It clearly
remains a fact, however, that the anal part of the gut is the first to be
developed ; that the oesophagus for a time appears to be a solid band
of hypoblast cells below the head, while the point where the mouth will
open is not indicated until twenty hours after the young fish has escaped
from the egg ; the vent therefore appears about thirty hours before the
mouth.

The notochord eh apijears in embryos eleven hours old as a rod of
cells not different in character from those of the other portions of the
blastoderm, but shortly afterwards in the region of the trunk of the
embryo clearer cells make their aijpearance in the notochord, lenticular
in form and arranged transversely to its axis. They may be seen to grow
larger and larger until the primitive chorda cells form only thin trans-
verse partitions, between which the large, clear cells are developed.
Eventually the partitions entirely disappear, when the large, trans-

Comp. Embryol., ii. j). 61.

152 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

parent cells become crowded upon each other, and now compose the
entire medullary substance of the uotochord, which is functionally the
backbone or axis of the embryo fish. This metamorj)hosis of the primi-
tive chorda cells begins about the twelfth hour in the embryo mackerel,
and is completed by the time of hatching, and, like in the herring as
described by Kupfifer, the caudal end of the uotochord is the last to un-
dergo the change. The uotochord for a considerable time after hatch-
ing does not become distinct at its caudal end from the cellular mass in
which it terminates. The membranous sheath in which the uotochord
is inclosed seems to be differentiated when the metamorphosis of the
l^rimitive chorda cells into the clear axis rod or uotochord has been
completed. I have not succeeded in demonstrating from whic"h one of
the primary embryonic layers of the mackerel the primitive chorda and
consequently the uotochord are derived ; the weight of the evidence
afforded by the researches of others would appear, however, to indicate
that it is split oft" from the lower edge of the keel or carina of the
medullary canal just over the hypoblast.

The axis of the embryo is at first marked by a shallow groove which,
by the time the blastoderm is closed, is comi)letely obliterated, the last
portion of it to disappear being the caudal. The blastoderm is pushed
down before this groove, and when the latter closes dorsally and the me-
dullary canal, neural canal, or neurula is formed, as it has been vari-
ously called. Certain anterior ijortious of it become difterentiated in-
to the various i)arts of the brain. Primitively the brain of the mack-
erel is much compressed laterally, as shown in Fig. 8. At the extreme
anterior end a pair of lateral outgrowths, at first apx)arently solid, ap-
pear as the rudiments of the eyes, ojpv. The basal portions by which
they a^e in communication with the fore jjart of the brain become
Xjartiatiy the optic or second pair of nerves. With the more advanced
development of the embryo these outgrowths become hollow and cup-
like, the retina of the eye is develop^'''on their inner surfaces, while a
mesoblastic layer of pigment cells is developed on the outside to form
the choroid coat. The cup has a cleft in its lower margin which closes
later, and is known as the choroidal fissure. Covering the ojitic cups is
the embryonic epithelial stratum of cells ; from it an induplicatiou is
j)ushed into the cups, which is eventually constricted off from the parent
layer, and becomes differentiated into a highly refringent spherical
lens. Between the lens and the floor of the cup a space is formed very
early whi6h becomes the vitreous humor of the eye, and in front the
lens is again roofed over by a very thin concavo-convex hyaline mem-
brane, the cornea, likewise derived from the epidermis, between which
and the lens the aqueous humor is confined. The iris appears to be
developed from the extreme edges of the optic cuj) and becomes very
brilliantly i^igmented in a few days after the fish is hatched. The an-
terior part of the brain, from which the optic cups grow out, becomes
the cerebrum or fore brain, in x)art, also, the optic chiasma. The spinal

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 153

cord or medullais at first nearly a perfectly solid cord or strand of cells;
a canal malies its appearance in its center after the muscnlar somites
have been diflerentiated.

The rudiments of the ears, or auditory organs, in the embryo mack-
erel make their appearance soon after the optic cui)s, as slight eleva-
tions or welts on each side of the region of the embryonic hind brain,
an, Fig. 8. The ridge or welt is simply the lip or proDiinent border of
the auditory pit, which is being pushed inward from the outside in a
cup-like manner from the inner sensory layer of the epiblast. It soon,
however, becomes a closed sack. Fig. 10, au, and by the eighteenth
liour two calcareous otoliths are visible in it, as shown in Fig. 12.
The complications of structure which develop in the ear beyond this
point relate chiefly to the formation of the semicircular canals, and these
are developed some time after liatching as ridges or folds on the inner
surface of the auditory sack, the walls of which grow inward from above
and laterally, joining each other in such a manner that the anterior and
l^osterior vertical and horizontal semicircular canals are limited by them;
the sacculus and the otoliths lodged in it, consisting of the asterisk and
sagitta, finally occupy the lower anterior part of the sack, and the
auditory, or seventh nerve, enters it in their vicinity. The auditory
sacks, or vesicles, are now almost, or quite, as large as the eyes, and
lie on either side of the cerebellum cer, and medulla oblongata mo, as
shown in Fig. 17.

The nasal pits na, Figs. 10 and 12, are at first simple saccular depres-
sions diflerentiated from the epiblast in front of the eyes, between the
latter and the anterior end of the fore brain. At the age of one week.
Fig, 17, na, they are neat, cup-like structures, situated some distance
from the edge of the upper border of the mouth just in front of the
eyes. At this time it is already possible to demonstrate special so-isory
cells in their walls. At a still later period the nasal pits are bridged
over transversely by a coalescer' of a part of their opposite edges, so
that an anterior and a posterior opening is formed; these communicate
with each other beneath the bridge of tissue, and constitute the external
nares or olfactory organ of the type characteristic of the true fishes.
At what period this last type of structure is developed in the mackerel
has not been learned, as it was not formed in the oldest embryos studied
by the writer.

The several portions of the brain begin to be clearly marked ofl" from
each other at the eighteenth hour, when the fore-braiu or cerebrum,
the mid-brain between the eyes, and the medulla oblongata behind
the latter may be distinguished. When the young fish is hatched. Fig.
13, all of the divisions may be distinguished, as the cerebellum is now
clearly marked ofl" from the medulla. When the medullary groove
closed in the region of the brain, a laterally flattened tube was the
result, and there is no such extensive anterior downward flexure of the
brain on itself as is observed in higher types. As the various constric-

154 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

tions appear in the walls of the brain tube, the cavity: inside becomes
divided into the so-called ventricles or cavities of the primitive cere-
bral vesicles. As development proceeds the cerebral vesicles rapidly
dilate in a lateral direction, especially the mid-brain mh^ in Avhich a snr-
prisingly spacious cavity is formed in some species, which answers to
the j)assage-way from the third to the fourth ventricles of the higher
forms. Between the fore-brain and mid-brain the pineal gland ^9w is
developed ; while the hypophysis cerebri or pituitary body de])ends from
the floor of the brain down between the trabecule cranii. The fore,
brain is at first not bifid or divided into hemisi^heres; its division occurs
comparatively late in embryonic life. The mid-brain is the most con-
spicuous portion of the encephalon or entire brain of the young fish, and
soon after hatching its lateral free lobes grow backwards and down-
wards somewhat at the sides, and more or less extensively cover the
cerebellum.

At fourteen hours the embryos begin to show signs of the develop-
ment of pigment just below the superficial layers of the epiblast ; these
cells are at first scattered irregularly over the body of the embryo and
gradually grow darker; as they do this they also become irregular in
form and flattened, with a number of points running out from them, as
shown in Fig. 12. Later they tend to aggregate on certain parts of
the body, as shown in Fig. 13, where they form a band on the tail and
spots on the back ; as the embryo becomes still older a. band of them is
formed behind the ear. They are now still more irregular in form and
have evidently rearranged themselves very remarkably since the four-
teenth hour ; the rearrangement appears to be accomplished by their
migration towards definite points by means of an amoeboid movement
of their entire substance. When fully developed the nucleus becomes
very distinct, enveloped as it is in very dark protoplasm, and the pro-
longations of the latter look not unlike the pseudopods of those remark-
ably simple animals the Amcehce.

By the eighteenth hour the oil sphere found embedded in the yelk of
the Spanish mackerel was observed to be enveloped in a mantle of cells
apparently of hypoblastic origin, which fastens it firmly to the wall of
the yelk sack below and opposite the embryo. Fig. 12. By the time
the young fish is ready to hatch, the covering of the oil sphere is found
to be more or less covered with pigment, which seems to have in part
developed in the cellular mantle, as indicated in Fig. 13. The fixation
of the bouyant oil sphere to the ventral wall of the yelk sack makes the
latter bouyant, so that when the young fish escapes from the egg-mem-
brane it is turned wrong side up, and is not until some time after hatch-
ing that it has the power to right itself and counteract the bonyancy of
the globe of oil.

The heart of the young mackerel, like that of the cod, originates in a
mass of mesoblast cells, which are coarser in character than those in
the immediate neighborhood ; they appear to be budded off from the

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 155

mesoblastic roof of the cardiac portion of the segmentation cavity lying
beneath the head ; at first there is no definite arrangement of the cells
destined to become the heart, but they seem to be spread out in a loose
mass between the hypoblast and the mesoblast at the point where the
heart will apx)ear. As soon as they have grown down and come into
contact with the hypoblast a circular space or cavity is formed in their
midst, which is the rudiment of the heart of the mackerel in its sim^jlest
l^ossible form. It is now nothing more than a wide circle of coarse cells
interposed between the mesoblast and hypoblast, so that one may look
through the lumen or opening in the ring either from above or below.
In the process of growth this ring of cells is drawn out into the x)rimitively
simple tubular heart, the hypoblastic or venous end being dragged for-
ward while the branchial or aortic end is directed backwards. Thanks
to the transparency of these embryos, every step of the process may be
seen just as I have described it. By the eighteenth hour the heart h,
Fig. 12, is fusiform and open at the venous end, and still bound to the
hypoblast, and now begins to contract slowly and at long intervals, al-
though there are still no blood corpuscles visible in the fluid held in its
cavity. The next change observed is from this i)oint onwards, when its
anterior end is bent to the left and finally opens backward, and it is
now clearly determined that the wide backwardly directed portion will
become the venus sinus and Cuvierian ducts ; the point where the bend
is made will become the ventricle and the other narrow end the bulbus
aortae. At no time, nor in any form, have I seen any evidence of the
origin of the cavity of the heart by the coalescence of two distinct spaces,
as described in the develoi^ment of other types of vertebrates.

The embryo on the eve of hatching has a relatively shorter tail than
most other tji^es of true fishes, and when just hatched measiu-es a
little more than one-eleventh of an inch in total length. It usually
escapes head first from the egg, and manifests a singularly quiescent
disposition, but as it grows older and begins to right itself, as its
oil sphere becomes smaller, it will settle on the bottom of the vessel
in which it is confined, but if disturbed it will dart oft" and out of the way
with great quickness, and shows a disposition to avoid danger. The
yelk has diminished in bulk before the egg-membrane is ruptured, be-
cause the embryo fish has grown at its expense, and a considerable
quantity of i)rotoi)lasmic matter has doubtless been budding off from
it in consequence of the formation of free nuclei, which are found, in
other species at least, in the sui)erficial layers of the yelk just below
the embryo. The diminution of the bulk of the yelk is not due to the
development of the blood, which is not jet discoverable, nor will it
ai)i>ear until some time after the young fish has left the egg.

The rudiments of the breast fins appear just before hatching as a
pair of deUcate rounded folds, which, have a horizontal direction at the
base, and which grow out on each side of the body in the vertical from
the oil sjihere. They may be regarded, therefore, as having very little

156 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

genetic affinity to the gill arclies, from wliich they are separated by an
amazingly wide interval, as shown in Fig. 13, in which their position
is indicated at ff.

STRUCTURES DEVELOPED IN THE YOUNG- SPANISH MACKEREL AFTER

HATCHING.

Twelve hours after the young fish has left the egg-membrane it has
the appearance represented in Fig. 14 ; the yelk has diminished very
perceptibly in size, while the anterior end of the head is considerably
l)rolonged forwards as compared with its condition in the recently-
hatched embryo shown in Fig. 13. The yelk in collapsing also leaves
the. hind i^ortion of the intestine in an apparently more posterior posi-
tion, while behind the latter the rudimentary urinary bladder al is
very distinctly shown as a vesicle from which the simple tubular pro-
longation of the Wolffian duct wd passes up behind and above the
intestine. The Wolffian duct appears to develop comparatively late in
the mackerel, as it is difficult to make out anything corresponding to it
before the young fish leaves the egg. It would appear to originate from
the peritoneal (splanchnopleural) wall of the abdominal cavity, and to
be continued on either side into the urinary vesicle or bladder rt?, which
ojiens outward immediately behind the vent. During the latter stages
of development, or from the fourth to the seventh day, the hind portion
of the Wolffian duct acquires a decided flexure just before it enters the
bladder, as indicated in Figs. 10 and 17. This hinder portion may be
considered to probably represent the rudiments of the urinary ducts or
ureters of still more advanced stages of development.

"The excretory system commences [in true fishes] with the formation
of a [longitudinally disposed, paired] segmental duct, formed by a con-
striction of the parietal wall of the peritoneal cavity. The anterior end
remains open to the body cavity, and forms a pronephros (head kidney).
On the inner side of, and opposite this opening a glomerulus is devel-
oped, and the part of the body cavity containing both the glomerulus
and the opening of the pronephros becomes shut off from the remainder
of the body cavity, and forms a completely closed Malpighian capsule.
The mesonephros (Wolffian body) is late in developing."*

I believe it possible, however, from my own studies on some forms, to
show that a system of segmental tubes joins the segmental ducts at a
late stage of development, which pass into glomeruli which lie for the
most part along the middle line of the dorsal wall of the abdominal
cavity, close to the median dorsal aortic vessel.

Upon the origin of the generative structures of the young mackerel
I have made no observations, but their position in the adult would show
that, as in other fish-like types, they must originate as specializations
of tissue tracts on either side of the mesenteric suspensor of the intes-
tine.

Comp. Embryol. Balfour, ii, p. 63.

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 157

In Fig-. 14 a large siuus, ss, is shown just over tlie brain, wliicli is
roofed over by the dermal and deeper layers of Ihe epiblast; the cavity
so formed is filled with flnid and persists for at least a week, as shown
in Fig. 17. Below the hinder part of the head and at its sides, in
Fig-. 14, the branchial farrows hr are visible ; as these become decider
they are finally broken throngh into the wide branchial chamber of the
fore-gut, as the gill-clefts. This takes j)lace about tAventy-four hours
after hatching, and is on the eve of accomplishmeut in Fig. 15, in
which the point where the mouth will appear is indicated at m on the
lower side of the head; just behind the point where the mouth will soon
break through, the rudiment of the lower jaw has made its appear-
ance as Meckel's cartilage, m?:. Above and behind it the cartilaginous
rudiments of the branchial skeleton or framework of the gills have been
in part developed. It will also be noticed that the head is higher and
that the brain is bent downwards more than in Fig. 14, in conse-
quence of the decrease in size of the yelk sack. The mandibular arch,
the forepart of which is indicated at mTc, does not yet reach forwards
on a line with the end of the snout. While the hyoid arch, or that im-
mediately following the mandibular, is still more or less obscured by
the latter, and covered up by it externally, behind which the branchial
arches or rudimentary gills are more crowded together from before
backwards than in the stage shown in Fig. 14. The trabecul?e cranii
have, however, been developed, but are still rudimentary, being pres-
ent only as a pair of symmetrically disposed longitudinal rods beneath
the brain. The eye, which was not heretofore completely pigmented,
is now quite black and opaque, the choroid layer being- developed. The
ear and nasal pits have undergone farther development ; the latter are
present as distinct cups in front of the eyes. The heart has undergone
considerable advance, in that its jiosterior end is now directed upwards,
while the ventricle and bulbus aort?e are more fully developed and ac-
tively pulsating, although the blood system is stUl imperfect, no trae
aortic or venous channel having- as yet been developed ; however, there is^
already a partial branchial and cephalic circulation, but the blood chan-
nels are not yet supplied with a sufficient number of blood corpuscles
to mark their courses distinctly by the color. The cavity in which the
heart noAV lies is bounded in front by the branchial structures, below by
what was formerly the anterior portion of the epiblastic sack covering;
the yelk, behind hj the hj-poblastic walls of the yelk sack, above by the
intestine and body walls. In this and earlier stages of develoi)ment j
believe that I have seen blood corpuscles swimming freely in the cavity
surroimding the heart, which would indicate that they had been derived
by budding directly from the hyx)oblast, Avhich is beyond the shadow of
a doubt the way in which they are developed in the embryo silver-gar,
or bill-fish {BeJone). The yelk sack is shown much reduced and more
strongly pigmented in Fig. 15, while the oil sphere has undergone-
considerable reduction in size. The widest portion of the young mack

158 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

erel is now from side, to side, tlirougli the eyes, tlie body seeming to be
concentrated towards the head. The breast fin hf, Fig. 14, is still a
semi circnlar lobe, with its base nearly horizontal, but it has been
advanced forwards somewhat twelve hours after hatching. It is merelj^
a flatteued epiblastic i^ouch into which has grown a tract of mesoblas-
tic tissue. Twenty-one hours after hatching the breast fin has acquired
a vertical position, as shown in Fig. 15, while the coraco-scapular car-
tilage CSC is in its incii^ient stages of development in its base. Up to
this time the intestine has maintained its pilmitive character as a hor-
izontally flattened tube, which it will not begin to lose for twenty-four
hours more, but below the breast fin a swelling has api^eared in its lower
wall, Zr, which is the rudiment of the liver.

Embryos on the fourth day after development have the appearance
shown in Fig. 16. The most marked advance which has made over
the stage, shown in Fig. 15, is that tlie intestine has acquired a cylin-
drical form, and is hollow or tubular, while it also has been bent upon
itself in its middle region. The liver is now a very prominent ventral
sack-like outgrowth from the lower side of the intestine at li\ just in
front of the bend in the alimentary canal. Its structure already shows
a lobular character, its walls bemg subdivided into the rudiments of
hepatic follicles. The epithelium over the rest of the inner surface of
the intestine becomes differentiated into follicles at a very early period,
which would indicate that the mucous membrane of the intestine had a
specific, probably digestive function, as soon as the follicular structures
were developed, which is accomplished about the time the young fish
commences to feed. Outside of the epithelial layer the annular and
longitudinal muscular layer of the intestine appears about the same
time, and peristaltic movements of the intestinal walls begin to be mani-
fested almost as soon as the intestine becomes tubular. Above the
liver, and a little way behind it, a diverticulum appears on the fourth
day, usually more or less obscured by pigment cells, which I regard as
the rudiment of the air-bladder ; by the seventh day it is much more
plainly developed, as shown in Fig. 17, ab. On the fourth day the
young fishes will begin to feed, as represented in Fig. 16, where the
black mass / represents the remains of food in the hind gut which the
animal had swallowed. From an examination of several specimens I
am not able, however, to state what this food was, as it was in a much
too disorganized condition to tell of what it originally consisted. The oil
sphere OS is now nearly absorbed as well as the yelk, which is entirely gone.
A portion of the anterior wall of the yelk sack, however, has remained as
a septum, partially shutting oif the pericardiac cavity from the body cav-
ity, in which the viscera are contained ; it stretches across between the
lower ends of the coraco-scaimlar cartilages esc. The circulation is now
fully established, there being an aorta and cardinal veins, cv^ which re-
turn below it to carry the blood back to the heart, a portion, however,
first passing through a vascular network over the viscera and represent-

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 159

ing esseiitiiilly a portal system of vessels. The blood is forced tbrougli
the braucliial arches, aud passes from them into the carotid arteries aud
aorta, to return to the heart again by way of the jugular and cardinal
veins aud visceral network. The venous or dorsal end of the heart is
divided by the intestine, the Cuvierian ducts opening on either side of it
upwards and backwards.

It will be worth while to here notice the fact that in the mackerel
there is nothing which is comparable with a system of vitelline vessels,
such as is found in tlie young salmon, stickleback and silver gar, but
that the venous end of the heart is throughout the whole of embryonic
life closely applied to the surface of the yelk sack (see Figs. 14, 15, 16,
and 17), so that it appears at times almost like a parasite sucking at
the vitellus. Stray colorless blood corpuscles may sometimes be seen
in the pericardiac cavity, say about a day after hatching, which would
indicate that the genesis of the blood from the vitellus was essentially
the same as that in the silver gar, where the fluid surrounding the heart
contains multitudes of colored blood disks, and where one can observe
them in every stage of metamorphosis from the substance of the vitel-
lus, at the point where the long tubular venous sinus of these*embryos '
joins the hypoblast of the yelk. At the end of the fourth day the
month of the young mackerel is wide open and the lower jaw, in conse-
quence of the greater length of Meckel's cartilage, reaches nearly as far
forward as the upper jaw or snout. The mouth is also frequently opened
and closed at this time by the mandibular and hyoid muscles. The
chondrocranium has also advanced in development in all of its parts,
since the auditory capsule is now clearly inclosed in an investment of
cartilage cells, which are joined to the notochord anteriorly by the de-
velopment of the so-called parachordal cartilages. Under the brain,
the primitive cartilaginous bars, the trabecule cranii, are developed,
and an oval space exists between them, into which the hypophysis cere-
bri or pituitary body dips downwards. On either side, and below the
hinder half of the eyes, the pterygoid cartilages have been developed
at the same time hyoid, quadrate, hyomandibular, ceratohyal, branchial,
and coraco-scapular elements have advanced in development.

The method which I have found the best to demonstrate the carti-
lages of the head in fishes as small as the mackerel, which measm^es
only a little over one-seventh of an inch at this stage, is the following:
crush a recently killed specimen under a Fol's compressor so as to flat-
ten it sufiiciently to let the light through it, then use a one per cent, so-
lution of acetic acid so as to bring out the contonrs of the cartilages
with their cells and nuclei. If this is carefully done there will not be
suflicient displacement or disarrangement of the parts of the skull to
render their identification at all difficult.

Figure 17 represents the head of a young mackerel nearly a week old
dissected so as to show the structure of the skull as nearly as such a
diflticult subject admits of representation. The parts of the chondo

160 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

cranium are lettered so tliat their names may easily be made out from
the list of reference letters. I have attemjited to show the arrange-
ment of the pavement of choroid cells, cc, in the eye as may be shown
in preparations mounted in balsam. I would also direct especial atten-
tion to the conical teeth represented on the epithelium of the lower
jaw. These seem to be developed in epithelial pits and are not in direct
connection with the skeleton of the jaw, which is, moreover, not yet bony.
They surmount little epithelial papilloB and grow by the addition of ma-
terial from below ; their composition does not appear to be calcareous,
but corneous, since I find them to resist the action of acids. Kathke
has described teeth of a somewhat similar character in the embryos of
the viviparous bleuuy (Zoarces).

In embryos of this age the branchial leaflets are also developed.
They at first ai)pear on the posterior border of the gill arches as small
papillie, which, as they elongate, throw out processes from their edges^
so that they eventually acquire a bipinnate structure. In these bipin-
uate fleshy processes capillary loops are formed, which communicate
between the branchial arteries and veins. The leaflets with their capil-
laries are the agents directly concerned in the aeration of the blood of
the young fish.

The coraco-scapular rods esc, although apparently cartilaginous, have
an histological composition different from the cartilages of the head^
being much more hyaline. It is also embedded in a vertical fold which
extends some way beyond the upper and lower borders of the breast fiu.
This may be called the pectoral fold. It is not at all imi^robable that
we will yet find embryo Teleosts in which there are continuous lateral
folds, for we already know species in which the x)riuiiti\ e natatory fold
is discontinuous at a very early age. Such is the case with Hippocampus
and Syngnathus, according to my own observations this season. Hippo-
campns never develops a caudal fin, so that we would naturally not
expect to find the natatory fold prolonged over the end of the tail ; but
the posterior position of the early rudiments of the pectorals in CyMum
and ParepMppuSj it appears to me, is a very strong argument against
their origin from a ijosterior branchial arch j indeed, it is the strongest
3^et offered against that doctrine by anj^ data derived from a study of
the development of the paired fins of Teleosts. In other words, since
we now know that the natatory fold, from which the unpaired median
fins are developed, is sometimes discontinuous, I see no reason why we
should not expect to find the lateral fin-folds discontinuous, as there are
more reasons why they should be so in the Teleost than in the Elasmo-
branch embryo. In fact, it would appear that the greater the longi-
tudinal extent of the unpaired fins in proportion to the length of the
body of the adult the more likelihood there is of finding a continuous
dorsal and ventral natatory fold developed in the larva, and vice verm.
The longitudinal extent of the paired fins of Teleost fishes is less, vastly
less, in resj)ect to the number of rays, than those of the Elasmobranchs,

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 161

and in consequence of this difference alone we should not be surprised
to find lateral fin-folds of considerable extent in the embryo of the latter
and of limited extent in the former. Viewed in this way, we may j)rove
too much for the doctrine of the origin of the paired fins from lateral
folds. The truth of the matter appears to be that we ought to quietly
wait ibr more facts before geueraliziug- with the data ol)tained from only
one group.

SUMMARY OF ANATOMICAL RESULTS, BASED ON ALL OF THE SPECIES

STUDIED BY THE AUTHOR.

The following" are the more important anatomical and embryological
facts which have been ascertained; onlj' such as are essentially new to
science or which receive new or fuller interpretations are noticed :

1. The segmentation cavity or blastoccel is developed with the growth
of the blastoderm so as to almost entirely surround and include the yelk,
and persists until late in embryonic life.

2. The somatopleure (muscular layer) and splanchnoi)leure (peri-
toneal layer) grow down into the segmentation cavity on either side
between the epiblast and hypoblast {Oncorhynchus).

3. The heart develops in an extension of the segmentation cavity
beneath the head.

4. The blood is of hypoblastic origin.

5. The germinal disk is formed by the aggregation at one pole of the
germinal matter covering the vitellus {Cyhium), or scattered through it
as a meshwork joined to the peripheral layer (Alosa).

6. Segmentation in the early stages is more or less decidedly rhyth-
mical, with alternating periods of activity and longer i^eriods of rest.

7. The egg-membrane is not always a zona radiata, sometimes having
no pore canals; a micropyle is always present.

8. The egg-membranes of the ova of certain genera {GJiirostoma,
Belone, Scomberesox, Hemirhaniphus) are provided with filaments or
thread-like appendages externally, by which they become atta,ched to
fixed objects in the water while hatching.

9. The egg- membrane may be absent, and replaced by a highly vascu-
lar ovarian folbcie, j^erforated by a follicular foramen in some viviijarous
forms {Zygonectes).

10. The median uni^aired fins originate from a dorsal and ventral natatory
fold, which may be continuous {Cyhium, Gachis), or be discontinuous at
the very first {Syngnathus, Hippocampiis), or be discontinuous very early
[Zyyonectes).

11. The pectoral is the first of the paired fins to be developed fi^om a
short lateral horizontal fold, the position of which varies in different
genera, appearing very far back at first in some, farther forward and
nearer the branchial arches in others.

12. The primitive cartilaginous coraco-scapular arch or shoulder-
Bull. U. S. F. C, 81^11

162 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

girdle is of mesoblastic origin, and appears just beneatli what may be
called the pectoral fold at the base of the breast flu. Its form and posi-
tion varies in different genera.

13. The proctodeum or vent of the young fish appears long before the
stomodeum or mouth ; the intestine develops from behind forward, and
it is probable that the intestine and medullar}^ canal are primitively
continuous through the intermediation of a neurenteric canal.

14. The number of somites or muscular segments varies in different
species at the time the tail is about to be formed, and is greatest iu
species in which a great number of myocommata are developed in the
adult, least in those in which the adult has fewer pairs of myocommata.

PRACTICAL CONCLUSIONS.

In the preceding account of the development of the Spanish mackerel,
it has been incidentally mentioned that the eggs of this fish are buoy-
ant, apparently from the presence of a large oil sphere in the vitellus,
and not because of the diminished specific gravity of the whole ovnm,
as apiiears to be the case with the cod egg. We would now insist upon
this character as being of such great physiological import that we can-
not aiford to ignore it or to conduct our hatching work without taking
cognizance of it in the construction of apparatus. The perfectly regular
development of the ova was found to take place practically at the sur-
face of the water, while those which sank to the bottom were considered,
in the light of experience, as not liable to develop at all. Where the
eggs were kept for the whole period of incubation in still water in a
marbleized i:)au, all that sank could be regarded as irrecoverably lost,
"while those which remained floating at the surface as uniformly hatched
ont. Changing the water on a lot of ova tbree or four times in twenty-
four hours in a pan gave almost as good results as any other method
employed. The active movement of the ova in apparatus devised to
hatch other species with heavy ova was amongst the least success-
ful modes, and especially where metals, such as copper, brass, tin, or
nickle, were used in the construction of the hatching vessels or screens.
Inasmuch as the protojilasm of the living egg is extraordinarily sensi-
tive to the poisonous effects of all metallic salts, such a result is no
more than might have been expected. We have therefore been con-
strained to suggest the use of apparatus which, as far as practicable,
was constructed of wood, glass, or of some material indifferent to the
action of sea-water. Experiments made, at the suggestion of Professor
Baird, with asphalt varnish and rubber paint at Cherrystone taught us
that it was possible to coat metallic surfaces with an inert substance
which would prevent the corrosion of the metallic vessels used in hatch-
ing, and hitherto found to be so fatally injurious to developing fish ova
of every kind.

The i^crcentage of losses in every case was large, and I doubt if 25

Bulletin of the united states fish commission. 163

per cent, of tlie whole luunber of eggs was ever hatched out even under
the most favorable conditions. The utility of some cheap and effective
glass ai)[)aratus is very apparent from experiments made by Colonel
McDonald, as his system admits of a wide range of application. Other
methods, especially those in which the intermittently active siphon
principle was applied, seem to afford some promise that a successful
iipi)aratus may yet be devised to work on that plan. Some trials of
such apparatus made by Colonel McDonald were promising, but I leave
the results attained for him to report upon. An equally simple hatch-
ing box was extemporized by Mr. Sauerhoff with a Ferguson cylinder
set into a tub, the eggs being placed in the cylinder and the constant
water supply allowed to escape through its sides and bottom into the
tub outside and run off by a proper outlet. With this apparatus a fair
degree of success was obtained.

It may be stated as a general principle that buoyant ova must have
gentle treatment. That if they are much agitated in the water they
tend to be injured and are carried to the bottom, where they die. It
appeared that when the normal buoyant tendencies of the ova were in-
terfered with by any of our methods large losses were the result, and
that the nearer our methods approached the natural environment of
naturally spawned ova in the open sea the more successful we were.
To lorcibly immerse the egg of the mackerel, and keep it immersed,
would simply be to thwart what is most palpably a normal condition of
its life at the surface of the water.

The fertility of the mackerel, like that of most fishes with floating
ova, is very great, and it is to be expected that the mortality t)f the
ova will be in proportion to the fertility of the species. This seems to
be borne out by the converse state of affairs in the stickleback and top-
minnow, where a small number of embryos are matured, but are de-
veloped, with little or no losses, in a nest, and are nursed by the male
or viviparously in the body of the female. Viewed in this light, we
should expect large losses in hatching the cod, Spanish mackerel, moon-
fish, and bonito or crab-eater.

The young fish began to feed on the fourth day after development had
begun, and on the third day after hatching. The true nature of the
food was not determined, as it was seen in the intestines of only a few
specimens. Inasmuch as the young fish by the end of the first week
of their life already have teeth, it is easy to believe that their food con-
sists almost entirely of small articulate animals, which, with their quick
darting movements, they might readily single out and capture while
swimming about in water in which such prey abounded.

164 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

EXPLANATION OP THE LETTERS OF BEPEEENCE USED IN PLATES

I-IV.

ab. Air-bladder.
al. Urinary bladder.
at. Atrium or venous sinus.
ail. Auditory vesicle or internal ear.
ba. Bulbus aqrtse.
bf. Breast or pectoral fin.
6r. Brancliite or branchial arches,
cc. Choroid layer of cells ; lamina fusca.
ce. Cerebrum.
cer. Cerebellum.

ch. Chorda dorsalis or notochord.
chy. Ceratohyal cartilage.
cr. Carina.

C7's. Cardiac sinus; rudiment of pericardiac space.
CSC. Caraco-scapular cartilage or rod.
cv. Caudal vein.

ep. Epiblast or sensory skin layer.
/. Remains of food in intestine.
ff. Fin-fold ; rudiment of breast fin
gd. Germinal disk.
gp. Germinal layer or pellicle.

h. Heart.
hy. Hyi)oblast or inner mucous layer.
hy'. Hyoid cartilage.
i, i'. Intestine.
Iv. Liver.

m. Medulla spinalis or spinal cord.
mh. Midbrain or optic lobes.
mc. Medullary canal.
mZ.:. Meckel's cartilage,
wo. Medulla oblongata.
na. Nasal pit.

nf. Dorsal and ventral natatory fold or fin.
op. Operculum.
opv. Optic vesicle.
OS. Oil sphere.
2)c. Pigment cells.
pn. Pineal gland.
pp. Papular prominences.
q. Quadrate.
r. Rim of blastoderm.

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 1G5

sg. Segmeutation cavity.
so. Somites or segments of tlie muscle plates.
ss. Supracephalic sinus.
ir. Trabeculic crauii.
V. Vent.
ve. Ventricle.
wd. WolfSan dnct.
zr. Egg-membrane.
2/. Yelk.

166 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE L

Fig. 1. — Micropyle and micropylar area, in two positions, of an unimpregnated egg
of the Spanish mackerel. X 64.*

Fig. 2. — Unimpregnated egg of the Spanish mackerel, showing the germinal layer or
pellicle gp which envelopes the yelk or vitellus. X 24.

Fig. 3. — Morula stage of cleavage of the germinal disk of the egg of the Spanish
mackerel one hour and forty minutes after impregnation. X 25.

Fig. 4. — Germinal disk of a Spanish mackerel egg shown with its germinal pole
slightly inclined towards the observer. The disk gd is elevated and bis-
cuit-shaped, and is surrounded at its base by a circle of two rows of flat-
tened cells lying immediately upon the yelk. The cells in the disk are
four or more deep at this stage, three hours after impregnation, x 70.

Fig. 5. — Incipient blastoderm of the egg of the Spanish mackerel, viewed from the
side somewhat obliquely. The segmentation of the marginal cells has ad-
vanced somewhat as compared with Fig. 4, and it is clear that they will
become a part of the rim of the blastoderm. X 25.

Fig. 6. — Developing blastoderm of an egg three hours and thirty minutes after im-
pregnation, viewed from above, showing the blastodermic rim r in its
incipiency, while the darker space bounded by it corresponds with the
area beneath the blastoderm shortly to become the segmentation cavity.
X25.

Fig. 7. — Blastoderm of the Spanish mackerel egg seven hours after impregnation, in-
closing nearly half of the yelk, and showing the lumen of the segmenta-
tion cavity on one side at sg, which extends beneath the fore part of the
head at crs to form the rudiment of the cardiac sinus just in front of the
carina cr. X 48.

Fig. 8. — Embryo of the Spanish mackerel eleven hours after impregnation, showing
the rudiments of the optic vesicles opv, the chorda ch, and the cardiac
sinus crs. The segmentation cavity sg is shown between the epiblast and
hypoblast extending nearly all round the yelk. The blastoderm has not
yet closed behind the tail. X 50.

*iii every case the number of diameters to which the figure is enlarged is indicated
in Arabic numerals preceded by the sign X .

BuUetiu I'. S. Fish Commissiou, vol. I.

Plate L

zr

Spanish IMackerel {Cyhium maculatum).

168 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE H.

Fig. 9. — Spanish mackerel egg viewed so as to show ouly the caudal end of the em-
bryo twelve hours after impregnation, showing the himen of the segmen-
tation cavity sg, the rudimentary chorda, and the somites or muscle iilates,
while the blastoderm has not yet quite closed over the yelk at y. The oil
sphere is not represente'd. X 50.

Fig. 10.' — Embryo Spanish mackerel fourteen hours after impreguatiou. x 50.

Fig. 11 — Transverse section through the opening y of the embryo represented in
Fig. 9.

Fig. 12. — Spanish mackerel embryo eighteen hours after impregnation. The rudi-
mentary heart h occupies an asymmetrical position in its sinus beneath the
head and is a fusiform tubular oi-gan ojieu at the anterior venous end.
The oil sphere is attached to the ventral wall of the yelk sack or hypo-
blast and is partly covered by flattened cells which have budded from it.
X.50.

Fig. 13. — Young Spanish mackerel just hatched twenty-four hours after impregnation.
The rudiments of the breast fins have made their appearance on each side
of the body at^, and the oil sphere is having pigment cells developed on
its surface, while those of the body are already aggregated in patches on
the tail. X 25.

BuUetiu U. S. Fish Commission, vol. I.

7n

Plate II.

Spanish Mackekel {Cyhimn maculatmn).

170 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE IIL

Fig. 14. — Youug Spanish mackerel tliivty-six hours after development began, and
twelve hours after it had left the egg. The yelk sack has begun to be
absorbed somewhat, and in consequence of its gradual collapse its wall is
retreating from the outer or epiblast layer so as to leave a larger cardiac
space in front and a similar space behind between the sack and the intes-
tine. The latter still retains the form of a much-flattened canal, which
is still occluded in the oesophageal and oral regions, where it is not yet
broken through as a mouth, though the branchial furrows have made their
appearance. The breast fin bf now occupies a more anterior position as a
vertical semicircular fold a little way behind the ear. The superficial
epiblast has been elevated from the brain so as to form a space above the
latter, developing the supracephalic sinus ss. X 50.

Fig. 15. — Young Spanish mackerel forty-five hours from the beginning of development
and twenty-one hours after it has left the egg. The contents of the yelk-
sack have been mostly absorbed. The point where the mouth will appear
is indicated at m, behind which the Meckelian and branchial cartilages
are appearing. The heart is more developed, and exhibits an atrium, a
ventricle, and a bulbus arteriosus. The liver is appearing as a thickening
on the lower side of the fore-gut at Iv, while the hinder extremity of the
Wolffian duct is now plainly visible as a simple canal above the intestine,
but is widened behind the vertical portion of the hind gut into a urinary
bladder, al. The breast fin now occupies a vertical position and the rudi-
ment of the coraco-scapular arch or shoulder girdle has ajipeared in tho
pectoral fold at its base. A few colorless blood corpuscles have appeared
in the heart, but there is still no systemic circulation. X 50.

Bulletiu U. S. Fish Commissiou, vol. I.

Plate in.

7

! ' /

\

\

~\

^^l

tV

k

^>

r

;^^

H

';^H

>c^-^

\ci

Spanish Mackerel {Cyhium maculatum).

172 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION

EXPLANATION^ OF PLATE IV.

Fig. 16. — Spanish mackerel four days after development began and three days after
it had left the egg. The chondrocranium is much more developed than in
Fig. 15, as is apparent from the development of the mandibular, hyoid,
and branchial arches, as well as the trabecuhe cranii, parachordals, and
the investment of inciiiient cartilage covering the ear capsules. In con-
sequence of the advanced development of the mandibular and hyoid arches
the mouth is now wide open. The caraco-scapular element esc at the base
of the breast fin is a slender hyaline rod, different in its histological struct-
ure from that of the cartilage of the head bones, and marks the point
where a transverse fold of the hypoblast partially closes off the pericardiac
cavity from that of the abdomen. The liver Iv is now more fully developed
and is already divided into follicles. There is one turn of the intestine
upon itself, which in this instance contains the remains of food at. its
hinder extremity. The circulation is now fully established, the dorsal
aorta extending back for about half the length of the animal; at its pos-
terior extremity, cv, it becomes the caudal vein which carries the blood
forward to the heart, but not until a considerable part of it passes through
a system of vessels which traverse the viscera externally, when it is poured
directly into the venous sinus at, and so into the general circulation
through the heart and gills. X 50.

Fig. 19. — Head of young Spanish mackerel on the sixth day after hatching, partly
diagrammatic, showing the air-bladder ab, the urinary bladder al, the
liver Ir, more developed than in Fig. 16. The oil sphere os has been nearly
absorbed. The chondrocranium is very much more fully developed, while
well defined conical teeth have made their appearance on the papillae of
the dermal epithelium of the lower jaw, which is now longer than the upper.
The opercular fold is also more prominent. X 40.

BoUetiu L'. S. Fish Commissiou, vol. I.

Plate IV.

^

w.

"^

^j!

-^c

-^

^.tt

Spanish Mackerel [CyUmi macnJatum).

174 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

THE ARTIFIC'IAf. PROJPA«ATIOIV OF THE STRffPEK BASS (ROC'CIJS

JL,II\EATl.TS) ON ALBEMARL-E SOrNW.

By S. a. WORTH.

Office Superintendent Fish and Fisheries,

Morganton, N. (7., September 22, 1881.
Hon. S. F. Baird,

JJ. 8. Commissioner of Fisheries^ Washington, D. G. :

Dear Sir : Some months ago I promised to write you fully upon the
subject of the fertilization and hatching of rock-fish or striped bass
eggs taken by me on the Albemarle Sound in the spring of 1880. Cir-
cumstances have in different ways prevented my doing so at an earlier
date, but I finally undertake the task, which is one of pleasure. I shall
feel more than repaid if my observations shall tend in the least to fur-
ther inquiry in the same direction.

The rock fish or striped bass {Boccus lineatus) is found in considerable
abundance in the Albemarle Sound, but it has not so frequently oc-
curred there in the spawning state, owing perhaps to the suspension of
operations at the large fisheries about or before the time the eggs
rij)en.

I was superintending a shad-hatching force at Avoca, and having at
that time but few men who could strip shad well, had attended the
seine hauls at Sutton fishery, where I took the most of the eggs myself.
At eleven o'clock on the night of April 28, among a scant haul of shad
and herring I found a large spawning rock-fish. I had a large number
of impregnating i^ans ready to receive eggs, and after I had taken eggs
in seven of them, commenced to apply the milt. There were only five
or six males and but a i^ortion of them ripe, and I exhausted the milt in
the sixth pan. ISIone of the males were more than 16 inches in length,
and the milt was very scarce. I did not apply more than one-fourth as
much as is usually applied to shad eggs. By accident, the tin dippers
had been left at the hatchery, and when I discovered this I was afraid
that the milt would stand too long, and I put water to the eggs by dij)-
piug each pan into the open water of the sound. An easterly storm
brought heavy waves on the beach which were full of sand, small bits
of wood, and other injurious substances in the form of fish scales and
oftal washed upon the beach where herring were cut . In the act of im-
mersing the pans into the waves violent motion was given them in the
riding and jumping sustained, and after a survey of their unfavorable
handling and a comi^arison with the handling carefully guarded in im-
pregnating shad eggs, 1 despaired of success. Finding that it was not
possil)le to get further rock milt for the seventh pan, I took a male shad
and applied to the eggs in it. All of the eggs were watered and washed,
a tin pan being used as a dipper, in the same general manner adopted

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 175

with sliad ova, and in an liour's timo vroxa placed into backets and car-
ried to a small boat. They iinder\yent a journey of two miles, one-half
of which was in the open sound, the boat's course being in the troughs
of the waves. This seemed but another means of destruction that
awaited them, but they were unaffected throughout. The parent fish
weighed 57 pounds, and I pressed the eggs out as she lay upon the
beach. In this position considerable pressure was required. The eggs
were quite small, smaller than those of shad, and they possessed a
decided green color. When fertilized they became transparent, and in
the water could be seen only as small oily globules, which glistened
brightly both in solar and lamj) light. I measured the diameter of those
impregnated, somewhat rudely. I found them seven and a half diame-
ters to the inch. Finding the difference in the size of these and shad
eggs (which are eight diameters), I made an estimate of the number
taken. In a dipper which had been found to contain 40,000 of the latter
I measured the rock-tish eggs, estimating them at 30,000 to each dipper.
The contents of the seven pans, or in other words the eggs taken,
amounted to 700,000. They were placed into six shad cones, a smaller
number being placed in a floating box in the creek.

I bought the mature fish, and on the morning of the 29th cut her
open and removed her ovaries. I removed with slight pressure an
additional quantity of more than a quart of eggs. To determine the
comparative bulk removed on the night preceding, I filled them at the
natural openings with water. I found that the difference between the
last bulk of eggs, just removed, and a bulk of water sufticient to fill the
ovaries was about as four to five, or, in other words, the eggs removed
for impregnation were to the eggs unused as one to four, and thereupon
I based the total contents at 3,000,000.

It was not until the evening of the 29th that I believed the eggs
taken to be fertilized. Then I found that fully 90 per cent, were good,
the cone containing those im^jregnated with shad milt, however, being
very low in impregnation, perhaps as many as 5 to 6 i)er cent, being
good. At this stage they showed a less specific gravity than shad
eggs, rising to the surface with but a small current from below. Great
diftlculty arose in the development of this new feature, as the eggs
(trowded the screens above on all their surface. On the night of the
30th they commenced hatching. The fry immediately began to escaj^e
through the perforated screens, and pieces of cloth were bound over the
screens to arrest them. They soon clogged, and the water supply had
to be reduced proportionately to j)revent the cones from overflowing.
Within forty -two hours all the eggs were hatched, the fish being mostly
dead, owing to the reduction in volume of water. They were perfect
fish, clearly out of the eggs, and many quarts in bulk. Their bodies
were very small and the sack large proportionately. I removed about
-10,000 alive and placed them into the floating box, where about 10,000
additional ones had hatched. I kept them two days, but there was no

176 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

current iu the creek and the sun beamed down on them, destroying
some, and the others followed iiresumably from the putrid water. There
were 4,000,000 shad eggs and fish in the hatchery at the time, and the
rock fry died from neglect. Two thousand hybrids were removed and
kept in a shipping can for twelve days. They were watered ever two
to four hours, but survived under conditions that shad fry could not
have done, being near the boiler and machinery, in a high temperature
all the while. They were carried to Ealeigh, where it was designed to
put them into a fresh-water jiond, but they died at the depot on the
twelfth night after they were hatched. They had sacks of good size
still remaining upon them. The temperature of the water during hatch-
ing was GGo to 67° Fahrenheit.

From the recital above it may be inferred that rock-hsh eggs are as
easily fertilized as those of shad, and it would in addition appear that
a less amount of milt is necessary. It would further appear that tbey
are more hardy, even admitting large amounts of sand and other me-
chanical substances into the water while undergoing impregnation.

These points being as well determined as the limited experiments
with a single lot of eggs would admit, it occurs that it only remains to
ascertain the spawning localities of the parent fish when their propaga-
tion will follow. As an aid to discovering these localities it may be well
to mention the capture of three spawning fish at Scotch Hall fishery in
1879. This fishery is only two miles from Avoca. In 1880 five were
captured within four miles, and in 1881 three were captured at Oasou
and Wood's fishery, six miles from Avoca, and near the town of Eden-
ton. All of these were of large size, i)robably averaging 55 pounds.

No specific mode is adopted for the cai)ture of rock fish in these waters.
Twelve of the large seines, of one and a quarter to one and a half miles in
length, aggregate about 150,000 i)ounds per year. A great number
ascend the Eoanoke, the main tributary of the sound, which stream is
preferred by them in their ascent. More than a hundred fishermen are
engaged at intervals in the spring, fishing for them with dij)-nets from
dug-out boats below the falls at Weldon. They consume or sell the
catch at home, but a small number being shipped away.

Dr. W. R. Capehart, the proprietor of the Avoca fisheries, made an
experimental haul on May 6, 1876, wliich was called to notice by the
late Mr. James W. Milner. His fishing operations had closed, but being
induced for some cause to make the haul, he cast one of his large
seines. Eight hundred and forty rock were captured, which weighed
35,000 pounds. Tliree hundred and fifty averaged 65 pounds, and many
of these ran to 80 and 90 pounds. The roe from one female weighed 24
liounds, which must have contained, on comparative estimate, six to
eight million eggs. Dr. C. had not given any attention to artificial proj)-
agation at that time, and does not know if any were ripe. In tbis
connection it may not be inappropriate to mention that rock-fish eggs
were taken at Scotch Hall fishery in 1879. Dr. Capehart, assisted by

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 177

Mr. B. H. Walke, took a large number of eggs and applied the milt.
Their attention being drawn to the fishery, however, the eggs were left
two or more hours in the water unchanged. They were so much crowded
together, and so long unattended, that the imi^regnation was not very
good. They were placed into the cones of the United States steamer
Lookout, and were only discarded when a more perfect impregnation
was attained by Mr. William Hamlin in a separate and perhaps more
recent lot of eggs. Mr. Hamlin belonged to the corps of Hon. T. B.
Ferguson,

Some preliminary arrangements will be made next spring toward the
propagation of this fine ilsh, by the sub-department of fish and fisheries
of Xorth Carolina, which I have the honor to represent.
I am, yours, very respectfully,

S. G. WORTH.

ON THE RETARDATION OF THE DEVELiOPMEIVT OF THE OVA OF
THE SHAD (AtiOSA SAPIDISSIMA), \^ITH OBi^ERVATIOIVS ON THE
EGG.F17NGUS AND BACTERIA.

By JOHi¥ A. RYDER.

Several series of experiments at different times were undertaken by
persons connected with the United. States Fish Commission, having for
their object the solution of the following problems: " Is it possible to'
lower the temperature of the water in which shad eggs are incubated
so as to greatly retard and prolong the i^rocessf "Is it possible to
j)rolong the period of incubation so that large quantities of embryo-
uized ova may be carried for long distances by land or water so as to
effectively stock distant or foreign waters'?" These two queries, I think,
clearly state the objects of the experiments, and also tacitly indicate
the important results which would follow in case practical results should
be attained.

That a decrease in temperature would impede or retard the develop-
ment of ova has been known for a long time, and, without encumbering
this essay with references, it may be asserted as a truth based on phys-
ical reasons and facts. Physiologists and biological philosophers, such
as H. Milne-Edwards and Herbert Spencer, have recognized and dis-
cussed the influence of fluctuations of temperature on physiological
processes. Every genus, and perhaps even every species of fishes, in the
course of the early development of its ova, appears to present some
Idiosyncrasy of behavior w^hich demands that its characteristics shall
be studied before it is ventured to proceed with experiments of this
character. Practically the peculiarities of the ovum of the shad are
perhaps as well known as those of any species we are called upon to
deal with.

Shad eggs after impregnation are relatively large, measuring from
one-eighth to one-seventh of an inch in diameter. When first extruded
Bull. U. S. F. C, 81 12

178 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

from the parent fish they measure about one-fourteenth of an inch in
diameter, are somewhat flattened and irregularly rounded in form;
the egg-membrane, a true zona radiata, is much wrinkled and lies in
close contact with the contained vitellus. Immediately after impreg-
nation this membrane becomes tense, is filled with water which has
found its way through the membrane from the outside, and is now per-
fectly spherical, having apparently gained very much in bulk. This
gain in size is however delusive; it is only the wrinkled egg-membrane
which has been distended with water ; the vitellus or true germinal and
nutritive portion has gained nothing in size. The latter now lies in con-
tact with the lowermost part of the egg-membrane when the whole ovum
is at rest and is always more or less depressed from above in the form of
an oblate spheroid. After the germ has been developed, which is dis-
coidal in form and i^laced on the surface of the vitelline sphere, it usu-
ally also occui^ies a lateral position on the vitellus when the ovum is at
rest. The vitellus rolls about and changes its position inside the egg-
membrane as the hitter's position is altered. The vitellus is heavier
than water. A large space filled with fluid now exists between the vitellus
and membrane. No adhesive material is found on the outside of the
membrane as in the eggs of the white perch and herring, as may be
readily demonstrated with the microscope, although when first extruded
they are covered with a somewhat sticky ovarian mucus. The ova are
heavier than water and rapidly sink to the bottom of the vessels in which
they are undergoing development. All of the hatching apparatus now
used for their incubation in water is operated on the principle of a con-
tinuous flow which keeps the ova constantly in motion. So much for the
physical behavior and constitution of the shad egg, which is necessary
for the comprehension of what will be said subsequently.

It has been the experience of those intrusted with the work of look-
ing after the artificial incubation of the eggs of the shad that when the
temperature of the water was highest the process was completed soon-
est, when lowest it took a disproportionately longer time. In illustration
of this fact the subjoined data, supplied by Mr. W. F. Page, are of in-
terest from the records which were kept at the station on the Potomac
during the present spring (1881):

LotJN"o. 1.

Lot No. 2.

Lot. No. 3.

Time in hatching

148 hours.
57. 2° F.
61° F.

109 hours.
64. 50 F.
6G. 1° F.

70 hour.s.

Average temperature of water

74° F.

Average temperature of air

76. 25° F.

This series of data shows that with a fall in the temperature of the
water down to 57.2° F. it took six days and four hours to complete the
development in the egg; with a rise in the temperature of the water
to 74° F. the process was complete in a little less than three days.
The difference in the times of hatching between Lots No. 1 and 3 is 78

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 179

hours; the dififorence in the temperature of the water used is only
IG.8'^ F. Is there a limit to the possibilities of retardation? Experi-
ment has shown that there is. The temperature of ice- water, 38° F.,
was found to be fatal at the morula or germinal disk stage of develop-
ment of the shad egg, in the course of experiments made at Havre de
Grace, Md., in 1880. The cells of the germinal disk became brownish, the
cleavage furrows obliterated, the disk tended to spread out and become
larger across. These phenomena indicated stagnation of development
and death. The second series of experiments, conducted by what is
known as the "dry method" in a refrigerator box provided with canton-
flannel trays, devised by Mr. F. K. Clark especially for these experi-
ments, gave better results. We found that the ova merely kept damj)
on the trays in an air temperature of 52° appeared to develop quite
normall}^, the only serious drawback being the rapid and more or less
fatal development of fungus, the mycelium of which would soon grow
over the eggs, iienetrate the membranes, cause them to collapse, trans-
form the protoplasm of the vitellus into fungus protoplasm and kill
the ova.

The following abstract from my note-book, recording what was ob-
served in watching the results obtained from a trial of Mr. Clark's
apparatus, speaks for itself, though it would facilitate the comprehen-
sion of the matter if a series of explanatory figures could be introduced:

" Eggs taken June 8 and put into refrigerator at 9 o'clock p. m. ; exam-
ined June 9 at 9 o'clock a. m. ; exposed for 12 hours to a temperature
ranging from 54° to G0° F. Cleavage has advanced to the morula stage ; ,
i. e., the germinal portion of the egg is still discoidal, lies on one side
of the vitellus or yelk, and has not advanced beyond the condition ordi-
narily reached in three hours with the temperature 72° F.

" Same lot, June 9, 2.30 p. m., not advanced but a little beyond the
stage just described above; the germinal disk still maintains its char-
acteristics ; development normal ; temperature 51° F.

"Same lot, June 10, examined at 9.30 a. m. ; segmentation cavity de-
veloped and blastoderm forming ; incipient embryo making its appear-
ance at one side. The blastoderm, however, does not yet cover more
than half of the upper hemisphere of the vitellus, a condition ordinarily
attained in six hours with the temperature of the water at 72° F,
Temperature in refrigerator box now ranging from 52° to 51° F. Eggs
of the same age, 30^ hours in a hatching-jar, have the vitellus com-
pletely inclosed by the blastoderm, the embryo formed, with eyes, ears,
and brain distinguishable, and the tail is budding out as a small,
rounded knob at the posterior end of the embryonic axis, which curves
around one side and now extends from one pole of the egg to the other,
embracing an arc of 180°.

" Same lot, in refrigerator, examined June 10, at 8.30 p. m., or nearly
forty-eight hours after impregnation, show that tbe blastoderm has
grown down half way over the vitellus, like a hemispherical caj) ; the

180 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

keel or carina lias been developed. Temx)eratnre 53° F. in refrigerator
all day. Eggs in a cone of the same age, temperature of the water 65°
F., have the embryos well advanced, with the tail free and as long as
the i)ortiou of the body still in contact with the yelk, but the natatory
fold is not developed.

" Eggs which had progressed a considerable way in development, so
that the tail was somewhat more advanced than the stage last described,
and which did not yet have the eyes pigmented, were also experimented
upon at this time. In consequence, it was learned that such might be
suddenly transferred from the water in which they had previously been
undergoing development to the damp cotton-cloth trays without injury
from such sudden and continued exposure to an air temperature of 53°
F. A most striking fact was that in such as had the choroid or pig-
mented coat of the eyes in process of development had the formation of
the pigment arrested in correspondence with the general arrest of de-
velopment observed.

" Eeturning to the eggs of the 8th June : These were examined June
11, 9 a. m. Development is still normal ; the eyes are perfecting, but
the perfectly normal blastoderm does not yet quite cover the vitellus,
the diameter of the opening; at the caudal pole, where the vitellus or
yelk is still exposed, being equal to about one-seventh of the circumfer-
ence of the egg. Temperature during the night, 49.5° F.

"Other lots of ova, taken on the Gth and 7th June, and removed from
the hatching-cones and put on the cloth trays in the refrigerator box, have
been greatly retarded, but the development is normal, no abnormali-
ties whatever having been observed. The lot, taken on the 8th and put
into the refrigerator on the 9th, after having been in the water for 24
hours, are well advanced, the tail being twice as long as the portion of
the embryo's body attached to the yelk, and the fin-folds are nearly fully
developed, dorsally and ventrally.

" The eggs first put into the refrigerator on the evening of the 8th
June now show a disposition to wrinkle, i. e., part with the water
inclosed between the egg-membrane and tlie vitellus, and are collapsing.
Perhaps this is due to evaporation." Afterwards I abandoned the view
that evaporation was the cause of the collapse and wrinkling of the egg-
membranes. I am now fully convinced that it was due to the invasions
of a fungus.

"Same lot of eggs of June 8 examined June 11, at 7 p. m. Blasto-
derm not yet quite, but very nearly, closed over the vitellus. Only a
very small round opening at the tail of the embryo marks^ the point
where its closure is about to take i)lace. Temperature, 53° F. in refrig-
erator. Development normal in those which are not collapsing, after
remaining 70 hours on the trays.

"June 12, 11 a. m. — Eggs of June 8 in refrigerator for the most part
still alive. Temperature, 52° F. Development has been normal up to
this point; the blastoderm has closed over the vitellus, and the tail is

BULLETIN OF THE UXITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 181

just beginning to bud out as a rounded knob, as in 24 to 36-liour embryos
liatclied in water ranging from 80° to 72° F.

" Eggs of June 7, partially developed, have commenced to collapse in
the refrigerator box. This appears to be due to the growth of the fungus
on the ova.

" June 13, 10 a. m. — Examined the eggs put into the refrigerator on the
night of the 8th. They are now nearly all dead. Those not affected
with fungus mycelium still plump, and normal in development ; caudal
knob, but a little more prominent than when examined on the 12th, at
11 a. m. Temperature in box, 53° F."

We may sum up the result of these experiments as follows :

After a little more than four and a half days the ova of the shad exposed
on cloth trays to a temperature of about 52° F. have not advanced farther
than they would have done in water at a temperature o/80° F. in 24 hours,
or in 30 to 36 hours in water at a temperature of 74° to 68° F.

But after four and a half days our embryos have not yet passed through
half of their development, so that it would be safe to say that the period
of incubation at this rate could be prolonged for nine days, or a period
long enough to readily admit of the transportation of ova, so retarded,
across the Atlantic to England, France, or Germany. The bar to our
comi^lete success, however, was the rapid and fatal development of the
fungus, which is jirobably a saprolegnious form identical with the one
commonly j^roductive of more or less loss in hatching out ova in water
in all the forms of apparatus which I have seen used. If attention were
directed to a means of destroying the germs of these organisms I think
success might be very confidently anticipated. To effect the comj»lete
destruction of the spores in the water used, and to prevent their ever
coming into contact with the eggs upon which they lodge, germinate, and
grow, are the preventive measures to be adopted. These measures are,
I believe, feasible, but may involve some trouble in their execution. The
experiments of Tyndall and Pasteur have taught us that it is possible to
sterilize any fluid and render it absolutely free from all forms of organic
germs by energetic boiling, taking care afterwards to exclude the germ-
laden air by means of stopj)ers of cotton wool, or by hermetically sealing
the vessel. Such a method would, of course, not answer in this case, as
in sealing up a vessel containing the eggs in sterilized water they would
be smothered. The precautions which are practicable, however, are
these : (1) Take care to scald and thoroughly sterilize the pans into which
the fish are spawned ; (2) take care to wipe the spawning fish clean, and,
above all, avoid rubbing off the scales or to allow these to drop into the
spawn or milt ; (3) use only sterilized water to " bring up" or water-swell
the eggs; (4) take care to scald out the refrigerator and cloth trays, so
as to sterilize these of any germs; (5) it would also be necessary to boil
and sterilize enough water to keep the eggs and cloth trays moist during
the process of retardation; (0) the sterilized water should be kept tightly
covered in a clean vessel ; (7) in managing the refrigerator care should

182 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

be taken iu opening and closing it, and, in order to ventilate it, the open-
ing in the upper part of the chamber for the admission of air should be
provided with a filter of cotton -wool; (8) it would be necessary to scald
and sterilize new cotton cloths, since these are almost always laden with
germs. These precautions, observed with scrupulous care, would insure
success, as far as the danger from fungus is concerned, in conducting
this mode of retarding development.

The second series of experiments were conducted at Washington in
association with Colonel McDonald, this gentlemen having kindly under-
taken to aid in the work of experimentation, by means of various in-
genious forms of small and convenient hatching apparatus, of his own
devising, mostly made of glass. The method pursued consisted partly
in treating the eggs for some time on the dry principle on trays, com-
pleting the incubation afterwards in the glass apjiaratus fed with water
from a coil of tin pipe k«pt under ice in a refrigerator ; this enabled us
to maintain the temperature of the water supply at a pretty constant
point, ranging from 60° to 63° F. It was necessary, on account of the
distance which the eggs had to be transported, to use trays covered
with damj) cloths on which the impregnated, water-swollen ova were
carried in transit from the spawning grounds. The experiments were
conducted in the basement of the Smithsonian Institution, where some
of the trays of eggs were placed in a refrigerator and others put directly
into the water at the temperature stated above, using the McDonald
apparatus. The results of these experiments were of great interest and
of considerable value, as giving us data for certain precautions to be
observed iu the conduct of future work and experimentation, as may be
learned from the account of them which foUows.

Colonel McDonald found it necessary to devise some ready means of
transporting the ova from the spawning grounds over a score of miles
down the Potomac from Washington. This necessity, for an expedient,
proved that the transportation of ova by the dry method immediately
after they had been water-swollen was possible, and that it would an-
swer for long distances. To illustrate: some were kept on the trays in
good condition for seventeen hours iu the ordinary temperature of the
air, of 70° to 80° F., prevailing at that season of the year (July). When
the temperature of the air was up to 90° F. it was found that the ova
carried on trays and allowed to remain on them would tend to spoil
quickly, as bacteria and vibriones were distinguishable on all the spoiled
putrescent ova carefully examined under the microscope. It is there-
fore evident that in warm weather, iu transporting ova by the dry
method for long distances, it would be necessary to take certain precau-
tions to prevent the access of the germs of such putrefactive organisms
to the eggs. Essentially the same method of procedure recommended
to guard against the introduction of the spores of the saproleguious fun-
gus to the eggs would apply here. Such i^recautions, however, would
only be necessary where it was desired to retard the development for a

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 183

long time, in case it was desired to transport the ova long distances.
I tliink it would be found practicable to carry eggs on trays on damp
cloths for a period of 24 to 48 Lours without the least difficulty, pro-
vided a refrigerating apparatus was constructed in which the tempera-
ture could be kept at G0° to 6o^ F. ; below this temperature it would not
be safe to go, for the ordinary purposes of transportation from the
spawning grounds remote from the hatching stations. An important
matter to attend to in the application of the above plan will be to effect-
ively scald the cloths which are laid in the trays each time before they
are again used, or else they will become the nidus of untold myriads of
putrefactive germs which will lodge from in the air in dust, the reten-
tion and development of which would be favored by whatever of mucus^
dead eggs, egg-membranes, and blood might adhere to the cloths from
one time to another.

The putrefactive germs always liable to be conveyed in the impalpa-
ble dust constantly suspended in the air of houses in this latitude are
consequently much more insidious in their approaches than the germs
or spores of the saprolegnious fungus, which ordinarily causes a considera-
ble loss of eggs in the hatching-cones. The eggs attacked by the fungus
in the water first turn white; the egg-membrane then shows a disposi-
tion to wrinkle or become flaccid; the mycelium or growing stage of the
fungus is now in active progress. The mycelium is simply a felted mesh-
work of branching fungus cells, which appropriates the substance of the
egg and completely envelops its membrane. In this stage it is com-
paratively harmless ; afterwards from the felted mycelium threads club-
shaped cellular prolongations grow out, which radiate in all directions
like the seeds on a dandelion seed-head. In time each one of these club-
shaped heads of the iungus, to the number of hundreds on every affected
egg, develop a large number of spores or germs on the inside ; directly
the end bursts open and the minute spores swarm out of the club-shaped
spore-case in great numbers. Each of the spores is capable of indepen-
dent movement by means of long vibrating filaments attached to it at one
end. These wander about in the water, lodge on healthy eggs and grow
on and destroy them, so it is important that infested eggs should be
removed as soon as they make their appearance in the hatching appa-
ratus. Kiihne and Cohn have shown, however, that a temperature of
140° F. is sufficient to kill the germs of hacteria and other i^utrefactive
organisms, and it is very likely that such a temperature or less than the
boiling point of water, 212° F., would be quite sufficient to clear off and
kill any fungus germs which might adhere to the pans, trays, and cloths
used in the transportation of ova.

The preceding account of the development, destructive growth, and
maturation of the spores is from personal observatioijs made on eggs
infested with fungus in the hatching-cones on the barges at Havre de
Grace in 1880, and it is onlj- introduced here to direct attention to some
possible means of staying or mitigating its ravages. I do not pretend

184 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

to know the species hj its botanical name. I leave its identification for
the cryptogamic botanists ; practically, a knowledge of its life-history
sufiices for our i^nri^oses.

The following record of the most salient features of my observations,
made in association with Colonel McDonald, is on the whole not as en-
couraging as the experiment made at Havre de Grace, but it is of value
on account of the pathological changes or deformities which it was found
were induced in embryos when they were subjected to too low a temper-
ature. Only in the very late stages did they appear to be comparatively
free from this influence tending to the production of deformities.

A lot of eggs which had the germinal disk biscuit- shaped and nor-
mally develoi^ed were placed on trays in the refrigerator in the evening,
in an air temperature of 45° E. ; they were found in apparently normal
condition aft,er 24 hours had elapsed, but had made little or no progress
in development. After 24 hours more, or after exposure for 48 hours
to an air temperature of 45° F. on damp cloth trays, the germinal disk
was found to be deformed and dead, being helmet-shaped, with one or
two constrictions or furrows running round it ; the vitellus or yelk still
retained its normal appearance, however, the vitelline spheres being
clear, with the protoplasmic mesh- work enveloping them in a normal way.
Of the same lot, those which were taken out of the air temperature of
45° F. aud put into water at 74° F., hatched out normally in a good
jjercentage without deformities, showing that a suc^den transfer to water
at a much higher temperature was not attended with difficulties. The
I)rolonged stay of 48 hours of the same lot in the refrigerator at 45° F.,
showed that complete arrest of development and death would super-
vene, and that a i^rofouud abnormal change in the form of the germinal
disk would result.

Another series of experiments with eggs kept in a temperature of
64° F. showed the same tendency to retard development as was shown
by the Havre de Grace experiments ; embryos of the same age in water
at 74° F. developed nearly twice as rapidly.

Other experiments showed that eggs which had been retarded in de-
velopment at a temperature a little below 52° F. for two days exhibited
a tendency to develop abnormally. Tlie abnormal phenomena which
were noticed principally affected the notochord or embryooic axial car-
tilaginous rod, which had a tendency to become bent aud twisted, while
constrictions were also apt to appear giving it an irregular beaded and
generally misshapen appearance. Such deformities seemed to affect
only the caudal portion of the notochord ; the portion toward the head
end of the embryo being normal in its appearance. In this way great
deformities of the tail arose, so that in a micro-photograph of an embryo
two-tbirds developed, the tail, instead of being gracefully bent flatwise
^0 one side, is abruptly bent downwards and then upwards, so as to be
approximately V-shaped, as seen from the side.

Sometimes the deformation of the tail would only be noticeable at its

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 185

extremity; at others, the deformed portion of the notochord woiikl ex-
tend some yvay forward over tlie yelk beyond the point where the tail
originated, as it bndded out from above the point where the blastoderm
closed. In no instance was it observed that any deformity or disturb-
ance of the structure of the yelk took place, or that the epiblastic or
hypoblastic coverings of the latter were distorted.

The epiblastic coverings of the tail, however, showed a tendency to
crumple and become distorted. It was also commonly noticed that the
epiblast showed a tendency to proliferate or throw out masses of cells
in the form of irregular knob-like ckisters. These increased rather than
diminished in size as development progressed. No other structure of
epiblastic origin took part in the tendency to become misshapen. The
eyes, nasal pits, and ear capsules were normal in every respect. The
heart pulsated more slowly than in embryos hatched in water of the
usual temperature. This was probably due to the benumbing effects of
the low temperature.

When deformed embryos were transferred to water of 74° F. they
showed no signs of regaining their normal shape, but, on the contrary,
the deformity seemed rather to be aggravated as development pro-
ceeded. This was the case also when transferred to water ranging from
a temperature of 60° to 64° F. Once established, any deformity in de-
velopment seemed irremediable by any further stages which might be
necessary to complete the developmental processes undergone in the

In the light of these researches, taken in their entirety, it would
therefore api^ear thiit 55° to 53° F. is about the limit to which we can
with safety reduce the temperature in which the ova of the shad will
undergo their normal development. This temperature would give us,
approximately", nine days as the longest period of incubation attainable,
time sufficient added to the 4 days required for the young to absorb
the yelk-sack, or 13 days in all, to take embryos to be incubated on the
route all the way across the Atlantic, or even as far as the Danube or
Black Sea. Even this period may be somewhat extended, since it is
possible to retard the absorption of the yelk-sack of the young fish by
keeping them in water of 60° to 65° F. A temperature of 55° F. would
probably not be injurious at this stage. I have kept the young in water
at 38° F. for half an hour without apparent injuring. They had been
hatched only a short time before. The cold would benumb them, and
they would lie quietly at the bottom of the vessel until restored to ac-
tivity as they were warmed up in water of over 70° F., to which they
were at once transferred without harm. The muscular masses at the
sides of the body were benumbed as indicated by the quiescent beha.-
vior of the embryos. Tissue metamorphosis would be hindered by such
a fall in the temperature of the water. We saw that the cold caused
the pulsations of the heart to diminish in rapidity. This abatement in
the activity of the forces concerned in the transformation of the stored

186 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

protoplasm of the yelk into the structures of the growing embryo would
be very marked in consequence of subjecting young shad to a tempera-
ture of 55° F. By this means, reasoning from what we know of the
other phases of develoi^ment when exposed to like temperatures, the
absorption of the yelk might be retarded so as not be completed for six
or seven days. This would give us, added to the maximun i^eriod of
incubation of nine days at 53° F., a total of fifteen days, a period cer-
tainly long enough for all practical purposes in the transportation of
young fish for stocking purposes.

I would seize this opportunity to remark that it must, however, be
borne in mind that the growth of an embryo in the egg is different from
the growth of the young animal after it has been hatched and begins
to feed. The fish embryo has a store of food, which is inclosed in the
yelk-sack, which can scarcely be said even to be transformed, it only
suffers a change of place, as particle after particle of the yelk substance
is removed and built up into the structures of the growing embryo.
This transfer is effected through the blood, and also by apposition from
below. The young growing animal in feeding must truly transform the
protoplasm which it eats; it must digest it; it is carried into the blood
as chyle, and so to all j^arts of the body to repair the waste incident to
the exhibition of life. The two processes, upon careful comparison, are
wholly unlike. A fall in the temperature diminishes the rate at which
this transfer of the yelk substance to the structures of the growing em-
bryo takes place. The frequency of the pulsations of the heart decreases,
consequently the yelk substance which is in contact with vascular sinuses
below the embryo is not taken into the blood as rapidly. The result of
all this is that the absorption of the yelk is impeded and made to min-
ister to the development and growth in size of the young fish for a
longer period.

A few other points, and I have done with this part of the subject for
the present. Most steamships now use fresh water distilled by an appa-
ratus specially constructed for the purpose. This water, i^rovided the
most ordinary care was exercised in the storage, would be well fitted
to use in the process of retardation. The eggs carried on the trays
ought to be occasionally sprinkled with iiure sterilized water. The
distilled water supi)lied aboard steamships answers this description
fully, and almost everything is accordingly ready to our hands. To
reduce the temperature of the water used in the latter stages of devel-
opment, when it would be necessary to transfer the eggs to water, say
on the eighth day, or .after they had been for eight days on the damp
trays, it would be desirable to avoid contamination of the water from
the ice. To avoid this, the water should pass through coils of block-tin
pipe, placed in tubs, and kept filled with cracked ice ; thus we could
lower the temperature to at least 60° to 58° F. The same water
might be used several times over, because with care it would be so
slightly contaminated with organic matter that putrefactive processes

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 187

could not go on to any hurtful extent. The low temperature would also
tend to arrest any tendency to putrescence.

How to maintain a uniform temperature in the refrigerators, so as to
guard against dangerous fluctuations of temperature, appears to me to
be a matter of some difficulty, because sudden meteorological changes,
such as we sometimes experience in this latitude, would influence the
working of the apparatus. The best regulator would probably be a
faithful attendant. The control of the temperature of the water flowing
through coils surrounded with ice, is, in the light of experience, a com-
paratively easy matter, as it has been found that in a coil of a given
length the fluctuation in the temperature will not vary more than three
or four degrees, if a little attention is bestowed in regulating the flow
and keeping a good supply of ice packed around the coils.

The prevention of leakage or loss of water from the apparatus would
be entirely overcome, both on board cars and steamships, by the adoption
of the closed glass hatching-jars, of various forms, devised by Colonel
McDonald. They ai)pear to be cheaj), and are very economical of room.
There can therefore be no objection to the introduction of the api)aratus
into vessels and railway express cars on the score that it makes objec-
tionable slop and slush on the floors or decks.

The foregoing, it appears to me, is an approximate solution of the
problems which we set out to answer; whether we are right another
season's work ought to enable us to decide practically and finally, as we
can now take up the subject intelligently ; the preliminary experimental
work has been completed.

appendix on the histological rationale of re-

tardation!

Every developing ovum is made up of certain cellular elements, each
one of which is i)rovided with a central nuclear body, which apijears in
the light of recent researches to be the directive dynamic center of all
further changes involved in the successive cleavages undergone by the
cellular elements constituting that portion of the egg immediately con-
cerned in the formation of the embryo. The assumed disappearance of
the nucleus of the egg has been proved not to take place in the act of
impregnation, in not only invertebrate ova, but also in vertebrate ones as
well. The hypothetical assumption of a cytode or moneron stage of de-
velopment in the ova of all forms by Haeckel does not, therefore, appear
to be sustained by facts. These and other known facts, such as the recent
observation of the metamorphoses of the nuclei of Rhizopodsin the act
of division (multiplication), also throws doubt on the existence of the
Monera themselves, as Von Hensen has suggested. Nuclear networks
inside of cells, as well as intranuclear networks, seem to be of almost
universal occurrence according to the. researches of Flemming, Klein,
the Hertwigs, Pfltzner, Fol, and others on animals and man, and by

188 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

Strasburger on plants. Indeed, so striliingly is this true, that Stras-
burger has been tempted to utter the dictum, omnis nucleus e nucleo,
which in English means that all nuclei originate from pre-existing nuclei,
just as formerly Schwann expressed himself to the same effect in rela-
tion to the genesis of cells. Such intracellular granular networks ex-
tending outwards from the nucleus through the protoplasm enveloping
it may be seen well developed in the coarse vesicular connective tissue
cells of the American oyster, of which I have mounted preparations.
Vastly more complex intranuclear reticuli are found in the nucleus of
the unripe eggs of the common slipper-limpet, Crepidula glauca. I have
seen the granular threads in these undergoing the most wonderful active
changes of form. Spindle-shaped nuclei, the opposite poles of which
were joined by granular threads, have been observed in the eggs of
Elasmobranch fishes by Balfour. These were in the act of division, or
in the diastole condition spoken of by Flemming. CEllacher has seen
granular threads radiating from the nuclei embedded in the cells of the
germinal disk of the trout in its early stages of development. These
nuclear transformations consequently occur in the cellul.ir elements of
fish embryos. These observations are further supported by the fact
that both Brooks and myself have observed undoubted evidence of the
rhythmical nature of segmentation in fish ova, which ought to be the
fact, since it has been shown that the metamorphoses of the nuclei are
likewise rhythmical in character.

The metamorphoses, or changes in the form and structure of the
nucleus, are, in large part, connected with the genesis of new cells, in
the successive acts of cleavage or segmentation ; their metamorphoses,
doubtless, also play an important part in the functions of rejuvenescence
and depuration of cells, or in the general functions, repair and waste, as
well as in the excretory and secretory functions of organs. But in re-
tardation we have nothing to do with these latter kinds of nuclear
metamorphosis; we are only concerned with the alternate elongation
and contraction of the nucleus attendant upon the process of segmen-
tation or the fissiparous genesis of new cells, in which the pre-existing
nucleus of a cell, about to divide, elongates, becomes severed into two
parts, which become, respectively, the nuclei of two new cells. In the
process of cleavage it has been shown that, during the act of cleavage,
the nucleus of the cleaving cell elongates, becomes spindle-shaped ; that
the opposite poles of the spindle become, respectively, the nuclei of the
two new cells resulting from the completed process of segmentation.
During the active stage the two poles of the spindle are joined by a
barrel or spindle-shaped series of granular threads. When the seg-
mentation is about to be consummated, these threads, half way between
the poles, are found to have developed nodes or swellings ; these mark
the point through which the segmentation furrow will pass, so as to sep-
arate the old cell into two new ones. The segmentation furrow, accord-
ingly, passes at right angles across the long axis of the spindle-shaped

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 189

nucleus. As soon as tlie segmentation lias been effected the granular
threads are withdrawn from the nodal points at the place where the seg-
mentation fiu^row severed them, and are finallj- retracted into what were
formerly the two poles of the spindle. These poles are now the nuclei
of the two new cells, and, as soon as the granular threads are withdrawn
towards these new polar nuclear centers, the latter become globular and
pass into the resting stage. Afterwards they both elongate and go
through the same process, as here described, in the course of subse-
quent cleavages. This alternate elongation of nuclei into a spindle-
form, and contraction into a spherical form, in the process of cleavage,
has been called by Flemming the diastole and systole of the nucleus.
They accompany the rhythmical phenomena of segmentation and give
us a rational and philosophical interpretation of the phenomena of seg-
mentation. It must, I think, be plain to any one that this is essentially
a dynamic process, in which the artisan of organization almost makes
his methods of work visible.

It also affords a scientific explanation of the phenomena of retarda-
tion. Inasmuch as we have lowered the temperature of the air and
water, the media in which the ova of the shad underwent their devel-
opment, and find that it is retarded in consequence, we must naturally
conclude that the rate of segmentation, upon which the rate of develop-
ment directly depends, has been in some way interfered with or impeded
in its progress. Since we also saw that the rhythmical metamori)hoses
of the nuclei were directly concerned in the process of segmentation —
that in them the vis essentialis, essential force of segmentation, really
resides — it appears to me that we are also really bound to conclude
that the fall in the temperature has affected the activity of this vis essen-
tialis of the nuclei, which are retarded in their metamorphoses, in con-
sequence of which the rate of segmentation and development is retarded.
This fully and clearly accounts for the resulting prolongation of the
normal period of development when the temperature of the media in
which the ova undergo their evolution is lowered as much as is consist-
ent with their regular, healthful incubation.

If retardation is possible, it ought also to be possible to accelerate de-
velopment. For centuries it has been the practice to accelerate and
maintain the growth of plants in hot-houses and forcing pits during in-
clement seasons of the year. This is proof enough, as far as the vegeta-
ble kingdom is concerned, that acceleration of the processes of growth,
which simply means that the acceleration of fissiparous cellular prolifer-
ation or segmentation is here possible. Its philosophj' is the same in
principle as that of retardation ; acceleration is the converse or recipro-
cal principle as opjjosed to the former. According to a table given by
Mr. E. E. Earll, in his paper on the development of the cod, in the
United States Fish Commissioner's report for 1878, page 721, we learn
that the minimuoi time of incubation for the ova of this fish is 13 days,
temperature of sea-water 10° F. ; the maximum time, according to

190 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

tlie same authority, is 50 days, temperature of sea-water 31° F. Our
own experience at Wood's Holl last winter taught us that the develop-
ment of the ova of the cod was capable of being accelerated, for those
in a glass cone near a warm stove hatched out in a shorter space of
time, IC days, than any others. Our power to accelerate the rate of
development of the cod may be of use, as we may thereby be enabled to
hatch out a large percentage of ova in a very few days. Whether the
young would be as vigorous as those incubated in the natural way re-
mains to be learned.

Acceleration, like retardation of development, is accomplished by in-
fluencing the rate of the rhythmical metamorphoses of the nuclei of the
cells of the embryo. Accelerate the rate of these metamorphoses and
segmentation is hastened so as to cause development to proceed more
rai)idly. The stimulus is heat, a mode of motion, and we are forced to
believe from what has preceded that the nuclear metamorphoses are
simply the si^eciflc modes of motion of the cellular life centers. The
molecules of the nuclear spindles, reticuli, «&c., are made to move more
or less actively in obedience to the fluctuations in the activity of this ex-
ternal stimulus. All this goes without saying, however, that the pro-
toplasm, which in the case of every cell invests the nucleus, may not
also share in the process ; it is but natural that it should, because free
nuclei, independent of any investment of protoplasm, are unknown to
histologists.

Inasmuch as the granular particles of nuclear fibers and reticuli ex-
hibit certain modes of motion which appear to be characteristic in the
course of segmentation, and since we find that heat, admittedly a mode
of motion, accelerates or retards the motion of living nuclear matter in
its segmentational metamorphoses, are we not warranted in assuming
both of these kinds of motion to be in a degree correlated and interdepen-
dent ? The significance of the views here set forth in their bearings upon
general physiologj^ and pathology would appear to warrant the belief that
we may yet be able to solve some of the knottiest problems in biology.
Their practical significance in relation to the problems which have pre-
sented themselves for solution to the Fish Commission will also be ap-
parent.

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 191

A €0IVTRIBUTI01V TO THE DE VEI.OPMErVT AlVD ITIORPBIOtiOOY OF
THE l.OPHOBRANCHIATES; (HIPPOCAMPUS ANTIQUORUM, THE
SEA-HORSE.)

(With ouo plate.)

By JOHN A. RYDER.

During" the present summer Mr. W. P. Sauerhoff captured a male
sea-borse of our common American species in the Chesapeake, near
Cherrystone, !N^orthampton County, Virginia. It was placed in an aqua-
rium some time in the latter part of July and shortly afterwards over
150 young ones were discharged from its distended marsupium,or brood-
pouch. One of these young specimens preserved in spirits and handed
to me for investigation is the subject of this notice.

There is perhaps no teleostean fish which is more grotesquely and
profoundly modified in structure as compared with the ordinary ichthyan
type than the sea-horse, and it is for this reason that its development is
of especial interest to students of embryology. To briefly indicate in
what particular features it differs most widely from other bony fishes
may not be amiss.

The caudal fin has completely disappeared and the tail is not even
used as a rudder, as in the pipe-fishes, but has become prehensile and
serves the animal to hold fast to slender objects in the water. The
usual function of the caudal has been assumed by the dorsal and anal ;
the dorsal is the principal agent used in i)ropulsion, and with its help
the creature sculls along with the axis of its body inclined at an angle
of about 45° to the horizon ; the sculling action is undulatory and the
dorsal border of the fin describes in its movements a figure like the
number 8. The anal appears to play the part of a rudder as well as
assist in propulsion. The dorsal is also used in the pix)e-fishes as the
propeller ; the body is also inclined when in motion ; their behavior in
the water indicates that they have not been as highly specialized or
have not undergone such extensive modifications as their relative the
sea-horse, but that it is probable that both have descended from a
common ancestral type. In both the eggs appear to be received and
carried about by the males during the period of incubation; in the male
sea-horse there is a marsupium or brood-pouch situated behind the anal
fin ; it is comi:)aratively undeveloped except in the spawning season.
In some of the pipe-fishes the eggs are carried by the males in an exca-
vation or groove in the under side of the abdomen extending for some
distance in front of the vent, and covered over by wide dermal folds
which arise from either side of the lower edge of the body and which
lap over each other in the middle line; in others, as in Syngnafhiis opM-
(lion, there is a pouch behind the vent as in the sea-horse. In this space
the developing eggs are embedded in a firm gelatinous matrix. Impreg-
nation of the ova probably takes place at the time the eggs are trans-
ferred from the female to the male.

192 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

The most striking feature of all, however, in the organization of Hi]^-
pocampus is the downward flexure or bend of the head, which, together
with the shai)e of the latter, develops a most marked resemblance of
the forepart of the body to the head and neck of the horse, whence the
common name of the animal. Accomi^anying this leature the bones of
the snout have been prolonged so that the jaws are carried very far
forward, while the latter have themselves not undergone so much mod-
ification. The gills and opercular apparatus have also been much mod-
ified, the former in the adult consist of four pairs of arches with two
rows of i^innate, pyramidal, vascular branchial appendages resting on
and attached by their apices to their outer borders; these answer to
the branchial leaflets of other forms; the opercles articulate with the
hyomandibular behind by means of a distinct articular facet, and are
swung inwards and outwards on this articulation. At the upper border
of the opercle on either side and behind the auditory structures there
are placed the gill-openings, which are almost spiracular, and open up-
wards, the opercles being attached by their borders all round by mem-
brane, excex)t for a short distance at their upper posterior edges, where
the opercular efferent openings are placed. In that the water is forced
through the gills by the concurrent action of the opercles, hyoid appa-
ratus, jaws, and spiracular openings, it will be noticed in living speci-
mens that these parts together constitute a much more perfect i)umping
apparatus than is usually seen in the branchial structures of fishes. The
gills are specialized beyond what is usual, as indicated by the term Lo-
pJiohrancliii ; but this is misleading, as the branchial structures are not
really tufted, as may be learned by a careful examination; the inferior
and superior branchihyal elements of the branchial skeleton are want-
ing, according to Cope, and the arches, to the number of four, appear
to be less strongly developed than in other young fishes of the same
relative age. I can discern but four pairs, as in the adults, in my spec-
imen. The bend downwards of the head involves a bend in the axial
structures in the neck. Here the notochord is strongly bent ujion itself
as the embryo studied by me clearly shows. The spinal cord also bends
sharply downwards just behind the medulla oblongata, as necessitated
by the sharp bend in the notochord below it. These constitute some of
the most salient differences of Hippocampus as compared with other
types of fishes. The skeletal and anatomical characters which distin-
guished the Lophobranchs as an order, are given in the following words
by Owen (Anat. Vertebrates, I, 12): " Endoskeleton partially ossified,
without ribs; exoskeleton ganoid ; gills tufted; opercular aperture small;
swim-bladder without air duct. Males marsupial." Cope* defines the
order as follows: "Mouth bounded by the premaxillary above; post-
temporal simple, coossified with the cranium. Basis cranii simple*
Pectoral fins with elevated basis ; well-developed interclavicles. Ante-

* Report of State Commissioners of Fisheries of Pennsylvania for 1879-80, p. 118.

1881.

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 193

rior vertebrfB modified; the diapophyses much expanded. Inferior and
superior branchihyals wanting- or unossifled. Branchial processes in
tufts." To this the following- may be added as complementary and as
serving- to extend the diagnosis: Opercle a simple plate; mouth tooth-
less; opercular membrane iJersistentJy roofing over the gill-cliamhers of the
embryos.

The term Lophobranch, it appears to me, is liable to lead to misap-
prehension, as the gills are in reality not tufted at all, but can be referred
to the ordinary pinnate type commonly found in a great many fishes.
Yarrell* observes in a foot-note : "The tufted filamentous gills of the
Lophobranchs are compared by Milne-Edwards to the filamentous
branchiie of a tadpole ; and Eathke, who has investigated their struct-
ure, informs us that each is framed of a short, delicate, ligamentous
stem, to which the respiratory processes are attached by repeated doub-
lings of the branchial membrane, the folds widening as they recede from
the base, so as to form an inverted cone or club-shaped tuft." Fila-
mentous tufts do not exist in the gills of Rippocamjms, so that the first
part of the foregoing quotation is erroneous ; the latter jiart of it, attrib-
uted to Eathke, is correct, except the last word, and in this the German
anatomist was possibly misunderstood.

The true state of the case is as follows : there is a median stalk or rachis
to which the branchial leaflets are attached in a j)innate manner on each
side. The leaflets become larger as you go outwards, so that the pyra-
midal form of the compound branchial leaflets results ; this pyramid is
fixed by its apex to the outer side of the branchial arch. These inverted
Ijyramidal branchial structures are disposed in two series, usually four-
sided. There is therefore nothing at all in these structures which is not
represented homologically in the fish's gill of the ordinary type, since
the two series of vascular branchial appendages to each arch in Hippo-
campus are perfectly comparable with the bifurcated vascular branchial
appendages of such a form as Salmo. There is plain evidence that a pro-
cess of degeneration has taken place in the branchial apparatus of Sip-
pocampus ; the arches themselves have undergone reduction in length ;
the mesobranchial bony elements are reduced or aborted, and the num-
ber of vascular appendages is reduced very much below what is usual;
the greatest number of pinnate vascular branchial appendages ranged
in one row on the j)osterior margin of one arch of Hippocampus is about
ten, which is exceeded several times by the number found in Salmo, or
in many other common genera. The reduction in number of these ap-
pendages may have called for the extension of the area of the ultimate
branchial lamellae or pinnse, which is a marked feature in the gills of
the sea-horse. In other forms, as in Brevoortia, the ultimate vascular
I)inn8e on either side of the gill filaments, which are the active agents in
respiration, being richly supplied with capillary vessels, are very feebly

* Britisli Fishes, II, 395.
Bull. U. S. F. C, 81 13

194 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

developed. It is really these vascular pinnte wliich liave been exagger-
ated in development at the expense of the other portions of the branchial
apparatus.

EARLY DEVELOPMENT.

From what I have observed of the early stages of development of the
pipe-fish, Syngnathus pecMa^ius, and from a study of ova taken from the
pouch of a male Hippocamims j^reserved in alcohol, I offer the following
approximate account of the early phases of the evolution of the latter,
depending upon the former on account of its close relationship for the
details not actually observed. This will not permit us to develop more
than such points as we are w^arranted to infer from their close affiliation
to each other, but even such will be of value.

The egg of Hippocampus, like that of other teleosts, is constituted of
a yelk and germinal material. The former is a rich orange yellow in
color; the latter cannot be described, as it has not been seen. In Syng-
nathus the yelk is of the same color, and embedded in it superficially
and all around it there are deep yellow oil globules.

The blastoderm of Hippocampus is presumably formed, as in all other
known teleosts, by a gradual growth of the germinal disk over the yelk
so as to include the latter. The rudiment of the embryo appears at first
at the edge of the blastoderm, and develops for some time like other
fishes, such as the shad, cod, or stickleback. A segmentation cavity is
developed, which probably persists as I have observed in Syngnathus,
and a vitelline system of vessels is doubtless also formed as in the
latter.

Up to the time the tail is about to bud out from the caudal swelling
at the end of the body of the embryo there is nothing observable which
would be considered remarkably different from the type of development
exhibited by less modified fishes. The tail of the embryo Lophobranch
buds out, and does not develop the prominent dorsal and ventral nata-
tory folds so characteristic of the first api)earance of the tail of the
embryos of the spiny and soft-rayed forms. It results from this, that
the tad is extended backwards, as development proceeds, as a simple
cylindrical prolongation of the hind jiortion of the body. There is, after
a while, iu Syngnathus a low fold developed where the dorsal and caudal
are to appear, but there is nothing like the wide natatory fold apparent,
such as we see in the embryos of Alosa, Gadus, and Cyhium of the same
age. In Hippocampus there is no caudal in the adult, and we may there-
fore expect to find little or no evidence of a caudal fin-fold at any period
of its development.

The yelk-sack, I apprehend, is absorbed in the usual way, there being,
iu all probability, no direct connection of the yelk-sack with the intes-
tine. The period of incubation in the marsupium, from the fact that
development is pretty well advanced when the young leave it, I should
think would be not less than twelve to fourteen days.

The peculiar elongation of the snout probably begins before the yelk-

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 195

sack is absorbed, just as I have observed in embryo pipe-fishes. There
is also in the latter a more decided downward bending of the head as
it becomes free from the yelk ; we may expect to see a similar state of
affairs in the development of the sea-horse. Beyond this stage in
Si/ng7iatJnis an unwonted acceleration in the development in the length
of the quadrate cartilage, trabecular cornu (rostral cartilage), pushes
the rudiments of the inferior and superior maxillaries forwards so as to
lengthen the snout at an unusually early period. In jirofile, the head of
the young Lophobranch now bears a suggestive likeness to that of a
pug dog.

From what we know of the early development of the medulla spinalis
of Si/ngnathus, according to Calberla,* it is at first solid, as I have found
in tne case ot very young embryos of the shad from a study of trans-
verse sections. This is also probably the primitive condition in Hippo-
campus.

LATER DEVELOPMENT.

The specimen of young sea-horse upon which this notice is based had
already left the brood-pouch of the male and had been swimming about
for a couple of days; its development had accordingly advanced consid-
erably. We will begin our description with an account of the embry-
onic skeleton, referring to the plate in explanation of the relations of
the parts.

Cartilaginous sJceleton. — The axial rod around which the bodies of the
vertebroe are developed, and known as the notochord ch, still persists
and extends from behind the pituitary body py to near the end of the
tail. At its anterior extremity it is much bent downwards just under
the medulla oblongata mo. Farther back there is a slight bend in it
where the basalia, or basal cartilages of the dorsal fin el/] almost come
into contact with it. In the caudal region it is coiled in conformity with
the comijlete turn which is made by the terminal part of the tail. A
sheath appears to be developed around the notochord, and rudiments of
the vertebral elements have been developed, but they are not yet seg-
mented and distinct.

T7te skull. — There are no true bones yet developed in the skull, all of
the cranial bones are still represented by cartilage. The anterior end
of the notochord ck is involved in cartilage which arose primitively as
the parachordal cartilaginous masses j) on either side and a little past
the end of the axial element. Beyond this the trabecuLne cranii t extend
forwards under the brain, the si^ace between them at this stage being
slight where the piliutary body py lies above it. The cartilaginous
basis cranii is extended forwards far bej^ond the eyes as the trabecular
cornu, the olfactory organs or nasal pits na lying in an excavation on
either side, with an ethmoidal cartilaginous septum, e, between them
The tegmen cranii to is developed ujiwards and backwards so as to
roof over the fore brain ce. In front of the olfactory j)its na the trabe-

* Morph. Jahrbuch III, 1877.

196 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

cular cornu is prolonged far forwards into a cartilaginous bar, re, wliicb
we may designate here as the rostral cartilage on account of its great
antero-posterior development. The cartilaginous investment of the
auditory capsule au is still imperfect. From the sides of the trabecular
floor upon which the brain lies, the palato-quadrate elements arise to
give attachment to the cartilages of the maxillary and h3^oid arches.
The metapterygoid cartilage mt extends outwards and downwards be-
hind and below the eye to articulate with the very long rod-like quad-
rate q, which articulates at its front end with the rudiment of the lower
jaw, Meckel's cartilage mlc. Above the articulation of the quadrate with
Meckel's cartilage a curious bent element, a?, ai)X)ears to represent the
superior maxillary. Just in front of the expanded upper extremity of
the maxillary lies the posterior extremity of the upper labial or inter-
maxillary element la, which is continuous with a similar i^iece on the
opposite side ; this intermaxillarj^ bar curves over the anterior upward
bend of the rostral cartilage re. It constitutes the skeletal boundary
of the upper part of the oral opening m', and is not segmented in the
median line so as to articulate with its fellow of the opposite side like
Meckel's cartilage of the lower jaw.

The hyomandibular hm is not well differentiated from the metaptery-
goid; \r> fact, the point where the quadrate and metapterygoid are seg-
mented is only faintly indicated, as might be expected from the intimate
unions of these bones in later life, amounting almost to synostosis. The
symi^lectic sy is a slender rod somewhat impressed into the quadrate
externally at its upi^er end, and almost continuous at this stage with
the hyomandibular. The symplectic, like the quadrate, is seen to be
enormously elongated, as compared with its homologue in the normal
ichthyan skull of the same relative age.

The skeletal elements of the lingual or hyoid arch are also modified
considerably. The ceratohyal cy is a flat, oval cartilaginous plate lying
against the inner side of the lower end of the hyomandibular and the
inner side of the upj)er end of the quadrate. It articulates at its lower
end with the rod-like hypohyal hhy. There appear to be no mesial hyal
elements at all, which also seems to be the case with the adult, the me-
dial skeletal elements of the tongue being suppressed.

The branchial arches h' h" h'" h"" are present at this stage to the
number of four, the same as in the adult, and the lower mesial elements
ajjpear to be absent, just as in the case of the hyoid elements. The
branchial cartilaginous bars themselves are weak.

Shonlder-f/irdle. — The breast or pectoral fins, at this stage, have a
high basis, as stated by Cope in regard to the adults, where, together
with the dermal plates of the throat, a firm i)ectoral arch or shoulder-
girdle is developed in which there is sutural or, at least, inflexible union
of the coraco-scai)ular elements, I have only indicated the outline of
this arch in the figure at cs ; the object was too opaque here to make
out the contour of its elements. The lower end is coracoid, and has

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION, 197

already assumed a horizontal position, the apparently scapular portion
is vertical; the pectoral rays seem to arise almost immediately from its
hinder border. A i)owerful azygos muscle originates from the anterior
border of the coracoids in the middle line which is inserted by a tendon at
the point of Junction of the hypohyal cartilages, as shown in the figure.
This muscle pulls down the hyoids and increases the capacity of the
tubular snout, and is one of the effective agents in the function of res-
piration; the muscle is represented in its contracted state in the figure.

Structure of the unpaired fins. — These consist of the dorsal and anal.
The dorsal df has eighteen rays, which rest upon eighteen short inter-
mediary basal pieces, hc^ cartilaginous in structure, and which articulate
by a singular series of link-like structures with the cartilaginous inter-
spinous rays or basalia iCj nineteen in number. The muscles which
move the dorsal from side to side are arranged in eighteen pairs, and
run out radially and parallel with the interspiuous basalia, to be inserted
just where the intermediary pieces join the latter. In adult specimens,
the interspiuous basalia which are at this young stage nearly in contact
with the uotochord by their proximal ends, are pushed farther out and
become apjiosed upon and interposed between the spinous dorsal radii
springing directly from three vertebrae. The young, therefore, show
that the interspiuous basalia of the dorsal are at first more nearly in
contact with the vertebral axis.

The anal fin, «/, just behind the vent v. has four distal radii unseg-
niented and hyaline, the same as those in the dorsal, nor are they yet
barely more than incipieutly cartilaginous in either of these fins. These
rest upon four short cartilaginous intermediary pieces, with the same
link-like articulations with the interspiuous basalia as were noted in the
dorsal. The interspiuous rays of the anal ic are three in number, and
are curved towards and nearly in contact with the notochord at their
proximal extremities ; but in the adult, as the abdomen develops, these
are pushed outwards, and between their inner ends and the vertebral
axis there is finall}- a wide interval.

The brain. — Of this there is little to remark, except that its under
surface has a direction at right angles to the course of the upper end of
the medulla spinalis or spinal cord. The eye is relatively farther for-
ward, as. compared with the usual position of the cerebrum ce. The
eyes on this account are also more api)roxlmated than usual, only a
very thin interorbital septum separating them, behind which the
cerebrum terminates.

Alimentary canal and appendages. — The oral cavity is disproportion-
ately prolonged on account of the length of the intermediary elements
of the lower jaw and the length of the trabecular rostrum, and extends
from the point m' to the pharynx or gill-chamber. The gill-chambers
communicate internally in the usual way by clefts with the pharyngeal
portion of the alimentary canal. They are essentially closed cavities,
except where the interbranchial spaces communicate with the throat,

198 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

and where ttie opercular efferent opening s is situated behind the audi-
tory capsule. At this point I would call attention to what I believe to
be an important embryological character which appears to distinguish
Lophobranchiate embryos from those of the normal types of fishes. It
is usual to find the gill-openings of embryo fishes more or less uncovered
when they first appear. That is, the opercular fold is often so short as
to scarcely cover more than the first cleft ; this is a very marked feature
in Clupeoids, such as the shad, but is less marked in all other types
which I have observed. In the Lophobrauch embryo the superficial
epiblastic layer, which roofs over the gill-chambers, is apparently never
broken through until late, and at no time do the clefts and arches come
to be completely exposed as in the young shad. The opercular opening
appears late as a mere spiracle, and not as in other forms is the opercle
developed from before backwards. The simple opercular plate of the
Lophobranchiate embryo probably originates as an outgrowth from
behind the hyomandibular bone from a tract of mesoblastic tissue,
which appears comparatively late, since the opercle is not yet developed
in the stage represented in our figure. Of course we cannot yet be sure
as to the value of this character until we know more of the development
of other forms. The reuiarkable manner in which the operculum of
Gamhusia is developed warns us to be cautious in putting an estimate
upon such features, for here a hollow membranous process from the
yelk-sack extends up over the opercula, a feature quite as singular as
that noted in the Lophobrauch.

There is a sharp bend in the oesophagus oe, and a little way below
this bend the alimentary canal suddenly widens. Dorsally and about
on a level with the middle of the pectoral fin the spacious air-bladder
ab arises as a diverticulum from the intestine; its connection with the
intestine is closed very early. In front of it and at one side the liver
Iv is developed, but I have not been able to make out where it joins the
intestine, which, for well-known morphological reasons, it must do ; it is
therefore represented only in outline.

IsTearly opposite the commencement of the dorsal 1 find a very singular
valve in the intestine at iv. Nothing comparable to this structure has
been observed in fish embryos as young as this except by myself in the
posterior portion of the intestine of the larval cod (Gadvs), but in that
form it is only a constriction, and does not completely shut off the ante-
rior portion of the alimentary canal from the posterior. Beyond this
valve the intestine of the young Hippocampus is continued as a pyriform
rectum ending in the vent v, around which the rudiment of the sphinc-
ter ani muscle is apparent, through which the ano-cloacal canal passes,
receiving dorsally a duct from the urinary vesicle or bladder al, into
which the segmental ducts w of each side empty their products. The
extent of the development of the segmental ducts and mesonephros or
kidney could not be made out from my mounted specimen; this can
only be done by the help of transverse sections.

liull. i-'. C, vol. I.— liydi-i. —Hippocampiis.

PLATE XVII.

niPPOC'A:npi^s ANTIQTORT'M, the Sea Horse.

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 199

The dermal plates are regarded as ganoid by Owen. They appear to
me to be of sub-epithelial origin, as they are covered with an epithelial
layer of cells in the young, which persists in the adult, as in the case
of the outer covering of the scales of true ganoids {Lepidosteus)^ where
there is a very thin, soft external organic investment. They are some-
what irregularly conical in the young on the fore part of the body, as
shown in section on the head and back at sc. They are thickest at
their apices, and probably grow in thickness from below. On the top
and front of the head there are two pairs, on the back four pairs, on
the sides of the body one row of three on each side, and a transverse
row of three on each side in front of the dorsal ; behind the dorsal on
the tail, there are first two rows of four and then one row of two, so
that it is clear that a good many must be added to make up the number
of ])lates observed to cover the adult. The ventral row found on the
adult is absent in the young. Altogether there are more than three
times as many plates developed on the full-grown adult male of the same
species as are found in the young of the age here described. How these
are added can only be learned by further study of more material repre-
senting a greater number of stages.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE.

Young Hippocamims antiquorum viewed from the side as a transparent object,
enlarged 43 times.

al), air bladder; af, anal fin; al, urinary vesicle or bladder; at, venous sinus; au,
auditory capsule ; h', h", h'", h"", first, second, third, and fourth branchial arches of
the right side ; ha, bulbus aortse; he, basiradial cartilages; 6/, breast or pectoral fin;
c, cerebellum; ce, cerebrum; ch, chorda dorsalis or notochord; cs, coraco-scapular
arch; ctj, ceratohyal cartilage; df, dorsal fin; e, inter-nasal cartilage ; Jihy, hypohyal
cartilage; km, hyomandibular cartilage; i, intestine; ic, interradial cartilages or basa-
ha of fin rays; iv, intestinal valve; la, labial or inter-maxillary cartilage; Iv, liver
m, medulla spinalis or spinal cord; m' mouth; mh, mid-brain; mk, Meckel's cartilage
mo, medulla oblongata; mt, metapterygoid cartilage; na, nasal i)it; o?, oesophagus
p, parachordal cartilage; pn, pineal gland; jnj, pituitary body; q, rod-like quadrate
cartilage; re, rostral cartilage or prolongation of the trabecular cornu; ri, rectal por-
tion of intestine; s, spiracular outlet of the gill-chamber; sc, dermal scutes or plates;
sy, elongated symplectic; t, trabeculse cranii seen from the side; ie, tegmen cranri;
V, vent or anus ; ve, ventricle of heart ; to, Wolffian or segmental duct ; x, supra-angular
cartilaginous element, the rudiment of the supra-maxillary.

200 BULLETIN OF THE tTNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

ON THE IIABIT!>4 AND DISTRIBUTION OF THK OEODUCK, A CliAITI
OF TBIE PACIFIC (Glycimeris generosa, Gld.), 'iVITII .SllGCESTIONS AS TO
ITS INTRODUCTION INTO THE ATIjANTIC COAST OF THE U. S.

(See page 21.)

By HENRT HEMPHILL,.

Dear Sir : I have your favor of September 30, making inquiries in
regard to Glycimeris gencrosa, Gld., as to its value as an article of food,
and the possibilities of acclimatizing it on the Atlantic coast, &c.

In reply I would say, I think it would be a most desirable addition to
our list of edible clams, first, on account of its large size, and, second,
for its delicacy and rich flavor, which, when it became generally known,
I do not hesitate to say, I think would make it more highly j^rized than
any other bivalve. Unfortunately, however, it seems to be quite rare, al-
though it has a wide range upon our coast. I have collected it in Puget
Sound, near Oly mpia, and here, in San Diego Bay ; it is also said to
be found near San Francisco Bay, and it is very probable that it exists
in all the intervening bays and points where favorable conditions are to
be met with. Its variety, however, may be more apparent than real, as
its habits and the conditions under which it lives are such as to make
it dififlcult to find, and when found, it is obtained only by hard labor
during extreme low tide. Its station, both in Puget Sound and San
Diego Bay, is about the same, at extreme low tide. At Olymjiia I no-
ticed the siphons of several individuals protruding above the surface of
the bottom in about one fathom, and it is not imiirobable that it ranges
to much greater depths. In both places it also selects about the same
kind of bottom to burrow in, namelj", muddy sand, generally free from
gravel. It burrows about 2^ or 3 feet below the surface. It can be
found only when it protrudes its pipes above the surface, after the tide
has run out. The receding tide fills up the holes made by the siphons
with sand and mud, and if they did not move them it would be impossi-
ble to find them. The specimens I collected in Puget Sound were much
larger than the specimens I collected in San Diego Bay, and it may be
possible that the cooler or northern waters furnish more nutritious or
more abundant food than the warmer or more southern stations. On
account of its large size, thin shell, and rich flavor, it may be eagerly
sought after by many marine animals, and that matter should be taken
into consideration if an attempt is made to colonize it on the Atlantic
side. The largest specimens I have seen would, I think, furnish about
one i^ound or more of good delicious flesh, enough for four or five persons
to eat at one meal. I think its flesh too rich to i^ermit of regular stuffing
or gormandizing, although I ate quite heartily of it for several success-
ive meals, and experienced no bad or disagreeable sensations afterwards.
I think it would be esteemed more as a delicacy than a regular every-
day diet. I can see no good reason why it could not be acclimatized on

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 201

tlie east coast. From its wide rauge on tbis side, I think it capable of
readily adapting itself to almost any ordinary conditions, and it is very
probable that many localities can be fonnd on the Atlantic coast just
as favorable for its develoj^ment and existence as occur within the
limits of the twelve or fifteen hundred miles of its range on this side.
Puget Sound would be the best place at which to secure specimens.
It is very rare at San Diego. I have not found a dozen specimens
during the several years I have collected here, while at Olymi^ia three
men could secure a dozen at one low tide or in one day. The greatest
diflficulty to overcome in attempting to colonize it on the east side
would be found in the long time it takes to cross the continent and
in having it reach its destination in strong and vigorous condition, so
that it would be able to struggle successfully with any difficulties that
might occur in its new home. Since receiving your letter I have thought
that i)oint over, and the following has suggested itself to my mind as
probably the best plan that could be adopted to insure success : Have
galvanized iron tanks made, two feet square and three feet high; have
strong handles attached so that they could be moved without jolting or
jarring; attach a faucet, say, one foot below the top to draw off the water
when necessary. Cover the bottom of the tanks with muddy sand, say,
six inches deep; place the specimens on the sand in their natural posi-
tions, siphons up; then fill in again with the muddy sand, covering the
specimens about one foot deep ; then fill the tanks to the top with sea
water. Draw off the water once or twice every twenty-four hours, let-
ting it remain off', say, half an hour each time, so as to keep uj) the nat-
ural conditions as nearly as possible. A sui)ply of sea-water would have
to be taken along, while crossing the continent on the cars, and this
should be carried in galvanized iron tanks or tin cans, as water remain-
ing in wooden vessels, barrels, &c., for several days becomes more or
less charged with acids which might prove destructive to the animals
and defeat the plan. Having selected a place for the colony, dig down,
say, eighteen inches and i)lace the specimens in their natural positions,
siphons up, then fill in around the specimens, and drive a stout stake
near each one, noting the distance and direction, so that they could be
easily found when desirable. They should be closely watched for several
successive tides, and observations made on their movements, &c. This
method would be quite exi)ensive, but it is the only one that has occurred
to me which I think would prove successful. The shells are large, and
the length of time it takes to cross the country would prove destructive,
if they were ke[)t out of the water so long. I believe this covers about
all the information I can give on this subject, and if it will serve any
scientific purpose, or add to the knowledge of these lowly animals, I
shall be much jjleased.
San Diego, Cal.^ October 17, 1881.

202 BULLETIN UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION,

NOTES OiV IVEW EIVGLAIVD FOOD-FISHES.

By S. J. inARTIN.

Gloucester, Mass., October 26, 1881.

Dear Professor: I thought I would write a few lines in regard to
the herring fishery.

The herring fishery is over. I find there is some time between schools
of spawning herrings. The first gravid herring were caught at Pema-
quid, Maine, September 3. The next were taken at Wood Island, Sep-
tember 25. The next, at Eockport, October 3. The next, at Norman's
Woe, October 5. The herring were all done four days. When a school
struck at Jane's Cove, the herring were full of spawn from the first to
the last. The last school caught at Jane's Cove was October 18. They
were not so large as the first. They were full of ripe spawn. One
thousand barrels have been caught around the cape. Three-fourths
went to Portland. The mackerel fishing is fast drawing to a close. The
most of the mackerel caught the last week were caught in the night.
They are easier to catch in the night than in the daytime. Some vessels
got a school last night. I think the sperling (young sea herring) will
be scarce this fall. There were plenty of them in September. They all
left the river. The fishermen are getting their nets ready; they will
set them the last of the month. Hake are plenty on the shore-grounds.
The fall school of pollock appeared last week. Some of the Gloucester
vessels have made larger stocks this season ; I will tell you the largest
when fishing is ended.

I remain, your obedient servant,

S. J. MAETIK

Prof. Spencer F. Baird,

Smithsonian Institution, Wasliington^ D. C.

DESCRIPTION OF THE FISH-WAIT IN PITT RIVER, CALIFORNIA.

By S. R. THROCKMOBTOIV.

San Francisco, October 22, 1881.

Dear Sir : Your esteemed favor of the 24th ultimo reached me by
due course of mail; but confinement to my room by sickness prevent-
ing my adding to my information some matters pertaining to the con-
struction of the stone fish-way on Pitt Eiver, I have not been able to
reply at an earlier date.

The contract price of the work was $2,400, and it was completed and
turned over to the State for that sum, the work having been well done,
and complying with all the requirements of the contract.

Outside of the contract we incurred the additional expenditure of

BULLETIN UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 203

some $300 for engineer's cliarges, printing, advertising, &c., making in
all the sum of, say, $2,700 the entire cost. The rock is of slate, the
strata leaning with the current. The conditions were all favorable. The
fish-way is made on the southerly side of the stream. The principal
weight of the water flowing along the northerly side, the southerly side
was easih^ laid bare by a wing-dam, projected from the southerly bank
at a sufficient distance above the fall and at such an angle as to deflect
the current to the northerly shore. This mode of exx)osing the beds of
rivers, as practiced by the California gold miners and ^prospectors, is
quite inexpensive, and, at the same time, answers its purpose most
thoroughly.

The wing-dam is usually made of long logs secured together so as to
form a narrow crib or frame, one end of which having been secured to
the bank, the other is swung out into the stream and anchored at the
proper angle, when it is filled with sand-bags, brush, sods, and other
material, and is very easily made perfectly water-tight. This is contin-
ued and extended in the same manner until the part of the river bed to
be laid bare is entirely brought within the angle.

If there remain within the angle any pools of water they are baled
out, and if any leakage, etc., makes it necessary, the small streams are
very easily stopped out, and the part required made literally dry.

These dams are easily removed after they have served their purpose,
or in cases where the fish-way is near the bank a portion may be
strengthened and allowed to remain so as to make an eddy, if desirable,
at the head of the fish-way. In the construction of the fish-way at Pitt
Eiver considerable preparatory labor was necessary. The falls are in a
canon, some eight hundred feet in depth, and it was necessary to cut a
trail down to the foot of them on the northerly side, down which all the
material, such as lumber for the workmen's shanty, provisions, material
for a boat, &c. (for the foot of the falls could be reached only by the
side of the river opposite to site of the fish- way), had to be carried on
the backs of men, and then it also became necessary to improvise a
rope ferry across the river below the falls to get at the work. All of
this preparation and the entire completion of the job was done within
the sum named in the contract, and, in fact, yielded the contractors a
liberal profit ; but, you will observe, this was done after the manner
of California gold mining. The first contract was made in the sum-
mer of 1880, but as the season for work was nearly expended it was
not commenced, and the contract was thrown up. We again let it to
new parties, residents of the neighborhood, and this last spring and
summer it was commenced and completed in about four months. I have
never seen the falls of the Potomac, but from what I am informed that
river carries, at its falls, a much less body of water than Pitt Eiver
which last, although but a little over 100 feet in width at its falls, is a
deep and rapid canon stream. I fear that I have extended this letter
beyond your reasonable patience, but as I consider the great interest

204 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

you take in such matters, and looking myself upon this stone fish-way
as a marked illustration how economically such work may be con-
structed, even in the wilderness, and also how many such falls obstruct
the passage of fish to extensive spawning-grounds, which could easily
and cheaply be removed or remedied by even unskilled labor, I am sure
that you will pardon, if not justify, my desire to place in the possession
of the chief of our guild all the facts and circumstances of what I am
fain to consider as an important and in many respects a remarkable work
of the kind. For the purpose of preserving to you the work for refer-
ence 1 will merely recapitulate: Height of falls, 41 feet; length of fish-
way, 192 feet; incline, 1 foot in 6 feet; width of rock cut, 10 feet; angle
of fish-way, 10° ;' bulkheads, 4 to 8 feet ; space between bulkheads, 5J
feet; openings in bays, 2 feet; depth of same, 4 feet; depth of fish- way,
4 feet.

I will merely add that the rock excavations involved but little blast-
ing, but are mostly the work of the drill, gad, and pick, as their size and
form plainly indicate.

Hoping that the matter contained in this may, in part, repay you the

reading, I remain,

Yours, most trulv,

S. E. THROCKMORTON^,

Of California Fish Commission.
Hon. Spencer F. Baird,

U. S. Commissioner of Fisheries,

Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C.

NOTES ON A SHIPMENT, BY THE UNITED STATES FISH C'OMMIS-
SION, OF CAEIFORNIA SAliMON (ONCOKHYNCHUS CHOUICHA) TO
TANNER'S CKEEK. INDIANA, IN 1876.

By TARLETOI^f H. BEAIV.

On the 29th of December, 1876, the writer was sent from Mr. Clark's
hatchery at ^orthville, Mich., to Guilford, Ind., with 15,000 salmon-fry.
The fish were distributed in 8 milk cans, and I had one reserve can for
water. The day was cold and windy ; snow was drifting freely. The
temperature of the water in the hatchery was SSC" Fahr.

I left Northville ac 2.45 p. m. On the way to Toledo, at 4..30 p. m.,
the temperature of the car above the fish cans was 73° Fahr., while the
water in the cans was 37° to 38°. A drifting snow-storm delayed the
Flint and Pere Marquette trains ; but there was ample time in Toledo,
with a margin to spare, for mending a leaky water-pail.

I took a train on the Indianapolis, Cincinnati and Lafayette road at
7.45 a. m., December 30, for Guilford. There was no loss of fish on the
way. Tbe highest temperature observetf in the cans during the trip was
41° Fahr., the lowest 33°,

Dr. H. C. Vincent entertained me at his home and assisted in the plant-

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 205

iug. The salmon were put in at fonr points on Tanner's Creek, two wher©
the water was shallow, and two with considerable depth of water. We
opened holes in the ice for the deep planting. The ice was at least a
foot thick ; the water temperature was 33°. When the fry were liberated
by us they immediately begun to stem the current.

Fine black bass are caught in Tanner's Creek. Numerous springs
feed this stream near Guilford.

Dr. Vincent reports the capture of two fish of the 1874 shiiiment ; he
will correspond with regard to the progress of the present introduction
of salmon.

ACC"Oi:VT OF A SHIPMENT, BY THE IHVITED STATES FISH COMMIS-
8IOIV, OF CALIFORNIA SA1.MON-FRV (ONCORHV-VCIIIIS CHOUICHA)
TO SOITHERIV LiOlISIANA, M'lTH A NOTE ON SOME COL,i.ECTIONS
MADE AT TICKFAW.

By TARI^ETO]^ II. BEA]\.

The young salmon which were destined for the Louisiana streams
were reared from the egg in Mr. F. N. Clark's hatchery at J^orthville,
Mich. On the 19th of December, 1870, Mr. Orriu P. Maxson and the
writer were instructed to carry 30,000 of these fry to the 7iangipahoa
and Xotalbany rivers. We took them in fifteen milk cans, and had two
reserve cans for water. Fifteen thousand of the salmon were consigned
to the Tangipahoa River, at Amite, in Mr. Maxson's care, and the rest
to the Xotalbauy liiver, near Tickfaw, 10 miles south of Amite and
about 50 miles north of New Orleans, on the Saint Louis, New Orleans
and Chicago Railroad.

We left Northville at 2.15 p. m. on Tuesday. While in Toledo one of
the water cans sprung a leak. We were compelled to draw oft' the water
in pails and distribute some to the fish. We then took the can to a
hardware store and had it soldered. As the fish cans had too much
water in them, we drew oft' some and returned it to the water cans.

Our route was by Cincinnati, Hamilton and Dayton Railroad to Cin-
cinnati, thence by Louisville, Cincinnati and Lexington road and Lou-
isville Short Line to Milan, Tenn., and from there by Saint Louis, New
Orleans and Chicago road to our objective points.

The only great delay occurred at Milan, where we waited from 4 a. m.
Thursday to 1.30 p. m., and here was experienced the only difficulty we
had with the fry. The high temperature of the air, as compared with
that of Northville, and the standing still, which seems to be particularly
injurious to salmon, combined to make them troublesome. Frequent
changes of water and aerating by pouring with dippers, however, brought
them under control. We found a supply of excellent ice, also, which we
used freely in the well water taken here.

After leaving Milan there was no farther trouble with the fry beyond
the usual care accorded to them. Our stay in the baggage car was
attended, however, with some personal discomfort, owing to the pres-

206 BCLLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

ence of sundry legions of chickens, ducks, and turkeys, on their first
visit to the New Orleans Christmas festivities. Conductors and bag-
gage men during the whole route assisted us in every way possible.

We reached our destination on Friday morning — the morning of a
very pleasant, warm, and sunshiny day. Birds were abundant. A res-
ident of Tickfaw spoke of his intention to plant pease and beans in a few
days. There was abundant evidence of recent rains. The clay subsoil
retains widespread accumulations of water over the surface.

A four-ox team drew the cans to jSTotalbany Elver, the time occupied
in going and returning being about three hours. Messrs. O. M. Kinchen,
M. N. Arnold, and W. L. Fairchild accompanied me to see the planting.
jSTotalbany River has pure, cold water (55 Fahr.), running over a bed of
clear, white sand and gravel. There are many deep places and numer-
ous little rapids. Big-mouth black bass {Micropterus paUidus) abound,
much to the jeopardy of the tender salmon. Soon after the fry were
put in they started up the stream, and in a few minutes most of them
had traveled about 200 yards. The current is quite strong. At one
place a rapid caused a short delay, but soon one salmon took the leap
and the rest followed.

Mr. Maxson came down from Amite as soon as jDossible on Friday,
after successfully placing his charge in the Tangipahoa. We made some
collections of fish in the pools of water left by overflow in the vicinity
of Tickfaw. On the following day, December 24, we hauled a Baird
seine in the ISTotalbanj , to see what neighbors the little quinnat salmon
were to have. We captured a good many of the fry introduced on Fri-
day, and returned them to the stream in fine condition. They were con-
cealed under dead leaves, sticks, and stones, on the bottom.

COLLECTIONS OBTAINED.

In the pools of water at Tickfaw we found Zygonectes melanops and a
species of some other genus of cyprinodonts, young Lepomis, young
black bass {Micropterus palUdus), a species of Cambarus, and a small
shrimiD. In Notalbany River we seined Zygoriectes nofatus, Ammocrypta
Beanii, and a representative of another genus of darters, Lepomis mega-
lotis, a species of Woturus, numerous cypriuoids not yet determined,
some mollusks, and the common shrimp. A tree frog {Hyla sp.) was
also caught near the river. Large numbers of cane rabbits {Lepus
callotis var.), opossums {Didelphys virginiana)^ and raccoon {Procyon lotor)
were brought in daily by hunters. Quail were plentiful, but strong in
flight and gun-shy.

As to the result of the introduction of California salmon in 1876
nothing is known to me. Mr. W. Alex. Gordon, 30 Carondelet street,
New Orleans, has a knowledge of the Tangipahoa, and may be able to
give information about the subject.

United States National Museum,

Washington^ November IG, 1881.

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 207

I Translation.]
PACHAI.Y'S CAR FOK TRAIVSPOKTIIVO FISH.*

[From " Deutsche Fischeri-Zeitung," No. 43, Stettin, October 25, 1881.]

Some time ago we informed our readers that a joint-stock company had
been formed for transporting fresh salt-water fish from Cnxhaven to
Berhn, in specially constructed cars. The originator of this i)lan, and,
as it seems, the soul of the enterprise, is the inventor of the car, Mr.
Arno Gustav Pachaly, from Mittelgrund, in Bohemia. His invention
has been patented in the German Empire, March 20, 1880, and the letter
granting the patent says the following regarding it:

''The transporting car is a railroad car, which can be taken off the
wheels, the walls of which are double, the spaces between the walls be-
ing filled with non-conductors of heat. The top and lateral walls have
a threefold covering.

"In the interior of the car, and resting on the double bottom, there is
a sliallow tank of forged iron with a vaulted roof, on which a stove-pipe
is fastened, similar to the stove-pipe frequently seen in the cabins in
fishing vessels. This stove-pipe has slanting sides, and can be closed air-
tight with a lid. Along the inside walls of the car there are shelves for
dead fish. Ice-boxes fastened to the ceiling serve to keep the car cool.

''In order to supply the live fish in the tank with fresh air, the air is
from the top of the car led through pipes into the ice-boxes, kept there
until it is sufficiently cool, and thence, by means of an air-pump fastened
to the lower side of the bottom of the car, forced into the tank. The
necessary power is, during the journey, supplied by the motion of the
car, the axis of one of its wheels being connected with the disk of the air-
pump by means of belts. In order to protect the fish against tbe dan-
ger of suffocation during long stoppages, the disk of the air-pump is so
arranged that it can be turned by means of a crank. Each car has, for
cases of emergency, an extra air-pump, which is placed in a line with
and to the right of the one in general use.

"In order to prevent superfluous air from entering the ice-box, and
also with a view of keeping the air above the water in the tank at a slight
tension, so as to prevent any violent motion of the water, the stove-pipe
of the tank has a lid at the top, composed of four parts, and fastened
by screws. To this lid a rubber-tube can be screwed, after the car has
been loaded, the other end of the tube being fastened to the ceiling of the
car.

" For letting the water off" from the tank, it has an opening in the
bottom, with a stop-cock, and with fn arrangement for fastening a tube
to it.

"At one end of the car there is a compartment for the person in charge
of the fish. A double door leads from this compartment into the one
where the fish are kept; and a person can, therefore, even during the
journey, easily pass from one compartment to the other.

* "Der Fishtrausportwagen von Pachaly." Translated by Herman Jacobson.

208 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

" The invention, about to be patened, is the construction of a car for
the transportation of fresh salt-water fish, by employing a tank, by intro-
ducing into this tank fresh air, which is absolutely necessary to the well-
being of fish, the air having jtreviously been cooled, and the superfluous
air having been shut ofl" from the ice-box, with a view of keeping the
air in the tank at a slight tension, so as to prevent any violent motion
of the water.

"This car is to serve for the wholesale transportation of salt-water
fish from the coast to some central point in the interior."

If this invention fulfills all it promises to do — and it is to be supposed
that the capitalists who have made it possible to carry out its theory
in practice have thoroughly convinced themselves of its usefulness —
Mr. Pachaly deserves the gratitude of all fish-dealers. A beginning has
been made, and circumstances will finally compel the disobliging rail-
road companies to be far more accommodating in the matter of trans-
porting fish than they have hitherto been accustomed or willing to be.

MEMORABTDUM OF SOME RESUL,TS OF THE ARTIFICIAL, PROFAOA-
TION AIVB FliAIVTIIVO OF FISH, DUE MAIIVI.,Y TO THE EFFORTS OF
THE UIVITEI) STATES FISH COJUIUISSIOIV.

The following chronological sketch shows some of the work accom-
plished within the last decade by the United States Fish Commission,
either directly by its own efforts or indirectly by its co-operation with
State commissions. It is, however, very far from complete, and the ob-
ject of publishing it is only to place on record some scattering items
preliminary to a more elaborate and complete article on the subject.
The United States National Museum now has many specimens illustrat-
ing successful introduction of important species, and these are recorded
in this article. The fishes from which returns have been received are
as follows:

1. German whitefish {Coregomis lavaretus). 2. Maine salmon (Salmo
salar). 3. Quinnat salmon {Oncorhynchus chouicha). 4. Eainbow trout
{Salmo irideus). 5. Shad {Alosasapidissitna). G. iJiirp{Cyprinuscarpio).
7. Catfish {Amiurus catns).

German Whitefish {Coregonus lavaretus L.^fZe Giinther, which equals
C, marccna Mlsson).

April 28, 1877. — Geo. H. Jerome, superintendent, writes:
"My overseer, Mr. Chase, informs me that but 409 of the 1,700 Ger-
man whitefish lived to be planted in Michigan waters. The number
which survived were very active and healthy, and were i)laced, on the
14th of April, in Gardner Lake, Otsego County, a small deep lake,
where no whitefish had ever been i^lanted, and free from all jDredaceous
fish. The eggs were a little larger than our whitefish eggs. The fish
had a larger sac and carried it longer than our whitefish."

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 209

2. — Maine Salmon {Sabno salar L.).

1873.

May 0, 187.'). — The Germantown Telegraph of tliis date aunouuees the
capture of young salmou iu the Dekiware River at Easton, Pa.

July 31, 1873. — The Germautown Telegraph of this date announces the

fact that young salmon from 2 to 4 inches long are being caught daily

in the Delaware in bait nets, and are returned to the river. One party,

iu one day, caught over fifty.

1874.

May 23, 1874. — Hartford Times, Conn., states that a fine salmon weigh-
ing six and a half pounds was caught in a cove, two miles below this
city, by Francis Smith. The salmon was bought by a Mr. Cook and
divided among three of his customers at 75 cents a pound.

September 18, 1874. — Mr. J. P. Creveling forwarded a salar or Maine
salmon 5 inches long (catalogue number, 13068), which was caught in the
Susqnehanna Elver at Marietta, Pa.

18

t i.

November 20, 1877. — Hon. H. J. Eeeder, a fish commissioner of the
State of Pennsylvania, forwarded an adult female salar salmon which
was canght in the Delaware Eiver in November, 1877. (Catalogue num-
ber of specimen, 207G3.)

1878.

January 14, 1878. — Dr. C. C. Abbot reports the capture, in the Dela-
ware Eiver at Trenton, of a salmon 10 inches long.

April 25, 1878. — E. J. Anderson reports the capture at Salem, X. J.,
on the Delaware, fifty miles from Philadelphia, of two fresh run salmon
weighing 22 and 18 pounds.

May 2, 1878. — Benjamin & West, New York, received a salmon from
Saybrook, Conn., weighing 11 pounds.

May 10, 1878.— S. B. Miller, Fulton Market, :N"ew York, reports the
capture of a salmon iu a pound in the sound, near the east end of Long-
Island, and of six or eight more taken in the Connecticut, two of them
eight miles from the mouth of the river.

June — , 1878. — Caj^tain Potter caught between Narragansett Ferry
and Hickford a salmon weighing 11 pounds.

July 3, 1878. — Chas. G. Atkins writes :

"We have found two more tags of our salmon, and obtained the
record of the fish from which they were taken : Xo. 768, handled at our
pond Xovember 1, 1875, weighing 20 pounds 7 ounces, yielded us 5
pounds 7 ounces of eggs, dismissed weighing 15 pounds; caught at
Lincolnville, June 14, 1877, weighing 26 pounds. No. 1010, handled
at our pond November 9, 1875, weighing 18 pounds 2 ounces, yielded
4 pounds 10 ounces of eggs, and was dismissed weighing loh pounds.
Caught again June 13, 1877, at Lincolnville, weighing 30J pounds."
Bull. U. S. F. C, 81 14 March 13, 1 882.

210 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

1881.

September 10, 1881.— Hon. S. G. Worth sent to the United States
National Museum two young salar salmon, of the Sebago type, measur-
ing 7i inches. Tliese were collected at Henry's, North Carolina, on the
above date. (Catalogue number of specimens, 29088.)

Novemher 24, 1881. — The same commissioner expressed a specimen of
of the land-locked form of salar salmon, measuring Ih inches in length;
this was caught on a hook in Mill Creek, t^vo miles above Henry Station,
in McDowell County, North Carolina. The letter of transmittal con-
tains the following information : '• 3,000 fry were j^lanted in Mill Creek,
in the spring of 1880, and 5,000 in the spring of 1881. * * * it may
be well to mention the planting of 1,000 California trout in Mill Creek,
March, 1880, with the land locked salmon. These fish must be the
original plant of 1880, there being dams below and these the only ones
planted above." (Catalogue number of salmon, 29112.)

3. QuiNNAT OR California Salmon {Oncorhynchus chouieJia [Walb.]
Jordan & Gilbert).

1877.

December 14, 1877. — J. B. Thompson forwarded from his hatching
ponds at New Hope, Bucks County, Pennsylvania, three quinnat or
California salmon, measuring 13 to 14 inches, which had been reared in
confinement from eggs hatched in 1874. (Catalogue numbers, 20894,
20895, and 20896.) He also sent two measuring 5^ to G inches, which
were similarly raised from eggs of 1870. (Catalogue numbers, 20897 and
20898.)

1878.

July 15, 1878. — John S. Eobson, New Castle, Ontario, caught a speci-
men of quinnat salmon weighing 14 pounds, in Lake Ontario.

1879.

June, 1879. — Mr, A. Booth, of Chicago, 111., sent a quinnat salmon,
over 20 inches long, which was caught in Lake Michigan. (Catalogue
number, 23203.)

November 3, 1879.— Mr. R. J. Sawyer presented to the National Mu-
seum a quinnat salmon, 10 inches long, which was caught at Green Bay,
Michigan. (Catalogue number, 23373.)

■4. Rainbow Trout (Salmo irideus Gibbons).

1879.

SejHemher 23, 1879. — Mr. Livingston Stone, in a letter from the United
States fishery, Shasta, Cal,, reporting results of experiments with the
California trout {Salmo irideus), concludes: " In pure and swift running
water the Salmo irideus will, in my opinion, easily sursavea temperature

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 211

of 75° to 80°, My experiments were tried in a tub of water, where, of
course, the conditious were unfavorable to the fish."

1881.

May 10, 1881. — A rainbow trout, 14 inches long (catalogue number
27844), bred to this size from the eggs at North ville, Mich., by Mr.
Frank 2»r. Clark, was received from the United States carp ponds,
Washington, D. C, where Mr. Clark had sent it.

Xorcmher 24, 1881. — Hon. S. G. Worth, commissioner of agriculture
of the State of Korth Carolina, forwarded, in alcohol, a specimen of
rainbow trout, 8 iuches in length, which was caught on a hook in the
month of August in Mill Creek, a tributary of Catawba Eiver. (Cata-
logue number, 29113.) The commissioner wrote as follows concerning
the fish : "It may be well to mention the planting of 1,000 California
trout in Mill Creek, March, 1880, with the land-locked salmon. These
fish nuist be the original plant of 1880, there being dams below and
these the oidy ones planted above."

5. Shad [Alosa sapid issima (Wilson) Storer].

1871.

: — , 1871. — The New Bedford Evening Standard, of this date, an-
nounces a large increase in the catch of shad in the Connecticut and
Hudson Rivers, which is undoubtedly owing to the work of artificial
propagation. It farther adds :

"Seth Green, in a letter to E,. G. Pike, fish commissioner of Connecti-
cut, in answer to his inquiry as to whether there had been an increase
in the number of shad caught in the Hudson River, says:

" There has been an increase in the catch in the Hudson River * *

* I am not surprised at the increase; it is what I predicted. There
is no increase in any river that shad frequent except the Connecticut
and Hudson.

"I have just come from the South and find their catch is light every-
where."

1872.

. — In the report of the Connecticut fish commissioners for 1872,

we find that schools of shad in immense numbers were seen in the
spring in Long Island Sound, making their way i\]) to the Connecticut
River, and on the 23d of May over twenty-eight hundred were taken from
a pound near Saybrooke ; at another, thirty-five hundred and sixty were
taken, and elsewhere they were caught in numbers varying with the
locality.

The largest haul previously on record was in 1811, when twenty-two
hundred and eighty were taken, though there was a haul said to have
been made in 18G2 at Haddam Pier of twenty-three hundred.

The abundance of shad in the river in 1871 was still greater than in

212 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

the previous year, 80 much so that in the time of greatest plenty they
coukl hardly be disposed of at three dollars and a half per hundred.

At the present period the increase has been sncAi that numerous fish-
ing stations for a long time abandoned have resumed operations with
very satisfactory results. A great increase in the numbers of the shad,
has also manifested itself in the Hudson and Merrimac Rivers, and with
a reasonable continuance of eflbrt there is every reason to exjiect that
the pristine abundance of the fish will be restored, and. possibly in-
creased, if young shad are hatched out in sufficient numbers.

, 1872. — The Germantown Telegraph says :

" In the year 1SG7 there were two million young shad hatched in
the Connectcut Eiver, and in 18(39 four millions. The official report of
the Connecticut and Massachusetts commission for 1871 stated, that there
were GO per cent, more shad in the river that year than in 1802 and 1870,
and 200 per cent, more than in 1862 alone. There had been a gradual
decrease until 1870."

1873.

May 9, 1873. — A letter received by Seth Green from Frank B. Leach,
editor of Vallejo Chronicle, California, says :

" The first shad ever caught in California waters was taken Monday,
by Baltimore Harry, and is now on exhibition at stall 79 and 80, Cali-
fornia Market, San Francisco. The Piscicultural Society had offered
a standing reward of $50 for the first of these fish caught in the waters
of this coast. There is no doubt about this fish being a shad. It was
caught in the net of Alex Boyd & Co., at the junction of the Casquinez
and Yallejo Straits, opposite the navy-yard magazine. The stranger
was about 10 or 17 inches in length.

"On April 30 announcement was made that a shad measuring 13 inches
in length was caught in the nets of the same firm, and brought to the
Chronicle Office. The Chronicle states that A. Boyd and Company
have been catching the same kind of fish for some weeks past. Being
unacquainted with the, species of fish, they attached no importance to
it, and have been eating them as fast as caught. Mr. Boyd says he
noticed they were very good eating. They have caught some thirteen
of them." — (From Rochester Union and Daily Advertiser.)

May 20, 1873. — Mr. Livingston Stone writes that a true shad was
caught at San Francisco, in the mouth of the Sacramento River, on the
28th of April preceding.

May 24, 1873. — An item in the Rochester Union and Advertiser of this
date states that " a Mr. Parkhurst, of Stapleton, N. Y., near the mouth
of the Genesee River, caught a shad in his seine. The same item says,
that last year persons caught a number of young shad in scoop-nets,
and the event was duly noticed."

Septemher 10, 1873.— The Rochester Union and Daily Advertiser of
this date announces that a shad 15J inches long, well developed, was

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 213

taken from the Alleghany River at Tidioute, Pa., sixty miles below Sii-
lana, where shad were put in l>y Wm. Clift, in 1872, nnder direction of
the United States Fish Commission.

1874.

April 8, 1874. — The Germantowu Telegraph of this date, quoting from
the l^ew York Sun, says :

" During the shad season on the Hudson, lasting from the 1st of April
till the middle of May, one million tish (shad) are usually taken, worth
about $300,000.

" Fishing is begun along Sandy Hook ; and from there to Stapleton,
Staten Island, drift-nets are used.

"From Stapleton to the Highlands stake-nets are employed. Poles
are set at regular intervals across the river, leaving room for vessels to
pass. To these poles gill-nets are fastened, and the fishes passing up
the river are caught. Above the Highlands drift-nets are used. Yery
few shad are caught above Hudson and Kinderhook, although a few
run to Troy. The nets have 5f-inch meshes. Higher up the river
smaller meshes are used. The nets are lifted every high water', and
thus the fish are caught going up the river with the tides.

"Three years ago in the Hudson the fish were so run down that manj-
fishermen ga\e up fishing. The fishing has greatly imi)ro\'ed since the
expenditures in artificial breeding."

May IG, 1874. — The Saint Paul Pioneer, of Minn., of this date, says:

Captain Johns has in his possession the first shad sujjposed to be of
those placed in the Mississippi two or three years ago. It weighs 5
pounds 9 ounces, and is IS inches long. Mr. Williams states that thou-
sands of these fish are dancing around in the waters of the lake " (prob-
ably Pomolohus mediocris according to Milner).

May 18, 1874. — Providence Press, R. I., says : " The shad catch is the
best this season that it has been for fifteen years. The results of shad
culture are beginning to be seen."

Alay 25, 1873 or 1874. — Mr. Benjamin Shurtleff, Shasta, Cal., writes,
]\Iay 20, to Hon. B. B. Redding, State fish commissioner, that on the 14th
instant Judge Hopping, \Ym. Jackson, and Jos. Brown caught a fish
in a net in the Sacramento River, at Jackson's Ferry, that was doubt,
less a shad. The fish was 12 inches in length, and weighed about a
pound. These gentlemen seemed to have more interest in trying the
flavor of their first shad from the Sacramento than of making the iden-
tity of the fish certain or of obtaining the $50 reward which was offered
by the State for the first shad taken. Judge Hoi)ping is a native of
Keyport, X. J., and familiar with the shad of the Raritan Bay and
River, while Jos. Brown is a native of Fall River, Mass., and claims to
know the shad thoroughly.— (Sacramento Daily Record.)

May 26, 1874.— The Hartford Post, Conn., says :

"The fact is, however, that shad are now more abundant and the

214 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

catcli is larger tlian it has been for some time past. The fishermen
thiuk the reason is all attdbutable to the method of proj)agation now
in vogue."

, 1874. — The Appleton Post, Wis., announces that shad 3 or 4

inches long have been seen in Fox Eiver, near Appleton, in large quan-
tities.

December 12, 1874. — Oswego Times, N. Y,, of this date states that on
the day previous a gentleman fishing with a fly from the ]>ier of that
harbor caiitured a shad measuring 9 inches and weighing one-quarter
of a pound.

December 18, 1874. — The Albany Ad vertiser of this date says : The
eftbrts to stock interior lakes and rivers with shad have proved remark-
ably successful. Large numbers have been taken at Port Dalhousie,
and one Avas recently caught at Cape Vincent weighing 4^ pounds.

The fact that shad can be successfully introduced into Lake Ontario
has been fully established.

1875.

April 3, 1875. — Albany Argus, IST. Y., announces larger hauls (of shad)
in the Hudson than in any year for a long time, the total catch being
1,(>()(),0()0. This led to a sharj) decline in the price of shad all along the
river.

Unlcnoicn, 1875. — The productiveness of the different shores on the
Delaware this season is a matter of daily comment.

At the Gloucester shore, on Monday, upwards of 2,200 shad were
taken at one tide. A few days ago the fishery at Carpenter's Point, in
Salem"? County, caught 2,500 shad in one haul.

Gill-nets have multiplied threefold the present season, and all have
been successful. The shad run larger and have been better flavored
than for many years past.

1877.

3Iay, 1877. — Pack Thomas, esq., sent from Louisville, Ky., an adult
shad, the first return from the introduction into the Ohio River. (Mu-
seum catalogue number, 19012.)

December 1, 1877. — Received a shad from Sacramento River, caught
two years ago. It is apparently a spent adult male. (Museuju catalogue
number, 20845; sent by William S. Bassett, Sacramento.)

March 20, 1878. — T. B. Doron, Montgomery, Ala., sends a four-pound
shad, caught at Wetumpka, on Coosa River.

April 18, 1878. — Dr. R. J. Hampton, Rome, Ga., reports that shad
planted by the United States Fish Commission some years ago are now
caught in large numbers.

{July 11, 1870. — 90,000 ]>laced in Alabama River, at Montgomery.)

May — , 1878. — Mr. Griffiths forwarded to National Museum two adult
female shad (catalogue numbers, 21345 and 21340) from the Ohio River,
at Louisville, Ky.

BULLETIN OP THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 215

May 3, 1878. — Cxeorge Spaugler, Madison, lud., aunounces the cap-
ture of about a dozen shad this season ; sold for a high price. Two were
caught hist year 20 miles below Madison.

May 21, 1878. — George F. Akers, Nashville, Tenn., says: "During
present month quite a number of shad were taken near Nashville and
sold in market."

May, 1874. — Col. Marshall McDonald, fish commissioner of Virginia
(report of 1878), speaks of marked increase of shad in the Rappahannock
Eiver, and says it is the general belief of the people that this is due to
the planting of young fish by the United States Fish Commission in 1875.

Aiwil 15, 1870. — Ilev. T. INI. Thorpe sent to the National Museum an
adult female shad, which was caught near Hot Springs, Ark., in the
Washita River.

6. Carp {Cyprinus carpio, Linn.).

1880.

Decemher 10, 1880. — Mr. J. B. Rogers, of Duval, Travis County, Texas,
sent to the United States National Museum, through one of the messen-
gers of the United States Fish Commission, Mr. J. F. Ellis, a fresh carp
reared from a lot introduced by the Commission eleven months previous
to the above date. In this short time, under the favorable conditions
found in its new home, this carp (from about 4 inches) reached the aston-
ishing length of 20^ inches, and weighed 4 pounds and 11 ounces. The
fish was brought by Mr. Ellis in a fresh state; a cast of it (No. 963) is
preserved, and the specimen may now be seen in the Museum. (Cata-
logue number, 2GG29.)

7. Cat-fish [Amiurus catus [L.] Gill).

, 1877. — Received a cat-fisli from Sacramento River, caught

two years ago. (Museum catalogue number, 2084G, entered December
1, 1877.) It came with a shad from Sacramento River.

EXPERIItlElVTS IIV THE TRAIVSB»0RTATI01V OF THE OERmiAIV CARP
IN A til.TTlITED srPrtiV OF WATER.

By MARi^HALL McDOMALD. •

The extreme hardihood of the German carp, and the great tenacity
of life exhibited under adverse circumstances, led to the institution of
experiments to determine whether we could not with safety greatly de-
crease the amount of water employed in their transportation and thus
reduce the cost of their distribution.

A common covered tin bucket, capacity 6 quarts, was procured, and
several holes made in the cover to allow free access of air. The bucket

216 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

was then filled nearly half full of water and in it were placed 22 carp, from
2 to 3 inches long. This was at 4 p. m, on the 15th of ^November; they
remained in this water until 9 a. ni., 10th. The water was then poured
entirely off, and the bucket filled about half full of fresh water. The
fish remained without further change of water or attention until 4 }). m.,
when an entire change was made, and the bucket of fish shipped by
express to Eugene ]>lackford, Fulton Market. A card of instructions
attached was as follows :

" Professor Baird wishes to ascertain if these carp will go to j!!^ew York
and return to Washington without change of water, or other attention
than to keep as cool as practicable. Will Mr. Blackford examine the
fish immediately upon arrival and verify their condition, and return
thein by first express to Washington, D. C. Don't make any change of
water before reshipping, unless the condition of the fish seems to be
bad."

The fish arrived safely in New York at 9 a. m. on the 17th. Mr.
Blackford telegraphed :

" Fish arrived in good order. Kettle one quarter full of water; will
return by evening train."

At the same time he wrote :

"Kettle of carp arrived at 9 a. m. Fish all alive and looking well.
Kettle only one-quarter full of water ; either leaked oiTt or slopped over
from careless handling. I have sent them back on the Express that
leaves to-night. I have not added, or changed the water; in fact, done
nothing but attach a tag to the kettle and send it back. I have no
doubt they will reach you all right in the morning."

The fish returned to the Smithsonian, at 11 a. m. on the 18th, all look-
ing strong and well, and but little more than a pint of water in the
bucket. In this they remained, without change, until 9 a. m. the 20th,
when they were all alive but apparently weak. A change to fresh water
immediately revived them, and they were soon as strong and vigorous
as ever.

These fish had now been in less than 4 pounds of water for 89 hours,
and had gone to New York and returned to Washington, sul^iect to
the rough handling which express packages usually encounter, no pre-
cautions having been taken to secure unusual care or attention in trans-
mission.

The result of the experiment was so encouraging that it was deter-
mined to try a shipment of 750 fish in buckets. The details of this ex-
periment were intrusted to W. F. Page, a messenger of intelligence,
judgment, and long experience. The result of the experiment he thus
re})orts :

" The carp were put up in twelve C-quart pails, 50 carp to each pail,
and the pails packed in a crate measuring 20" x 30" x 18". I also had
an extra 4-(piart pail, which I will here state received the same atten-
tion (that is, no attention) as the 0-quart pails and gave the same re-

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 217

suit. The fish were put up about 4 p. m. on the 25th iustaut, but at
4 a. m. the 26th, the night having been unusually cold, many fish were
either dead or torpid from freezing; these were emptied out and replaced
with fresh fish before starting for the 0.30 a. m. train. In the dark and
hurry, as I afterwards discovered, quite a number of fish larger than
are usually sent out in cyliuder cans had been given me. Eeached Rich-
moud at 11.30 a. ni., and laid over until 11.25 p. m. Itad the fish carted
up to the Saint James Hotel, for the double purpose of placing the ex-
periment under all the conditions likely to arise on an ordinary trip, and
that they might be seen.

"Leaving Eichmond at 11.25 on the 26th, reached Danville at 7.30
a. m. on 27th. At Danville had the last bucket weighed at Coon's drug
store. This bucket was an especial experiment, made at the instance
of Professor Baird. It had from the start just as little water as would
cover the fish ; in fixct, several had their backs above water. The weight
of bucket, water, and fish was 4 pounds 7 ounces (65 ounces) ; of the
bucket and water, 2 pounds 13 ounces (45 ounces), leaving the weight
of fish 20 ounces. The weight of water by measure was 20 ounces, from
which I conclude that one pint of water will carry one pound of fish
(carj)) without attention for at least 30 hours. Whether this relation
will hold true with larger fish remaius to be determined.

"In conclusion I would state that the water was so low in the buckets
as to occasion no slop in the car. In fact, on the route from Eichmond
to I^anville, the crate was at the toi) of a high pile of baggage, and the
baggage was dry and in good order the following morniug."

It seems hardly credible that a number of carp could live for any length
of time in hardly more than their own weight of water. Experiment
has, however, demonstrated the fact, and the explanation is probably
this:

What the fish require is not water but air, water being the necessary
medium through which they appropriate air. The air in a small quan-
tity of water would be very quickly exhausted, and if there was no ad-
equate provision for renewal of supjdy the fish would quickly die.

In the case of the fish in the small pails the free air surface of the
water is very large in proportion to volume. It is kept in continual
agitation by the jostling of the cars, or when at rest, by the movements
of the fish. Consequently, although the oxygen in the water is rapidly
and continucmsly exhausted, it is, also, rapidly and continuously renewed,
and the fish remain in good healthy condition. It follows from these
experiments that 25 or 50 carp in a half gallon of water in a shallow
pail are really under better conditions for healthy existence than the
same number of fish in the ordinary 8-gallon shipping can. The limits
of distance and temperature within which this method of shipment may
be resorted to can only be settled by further experiments.
Washington, Kovemher 29, 1881.

218 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

Since the conclusion of the experiments detailed above, the feasibility
of shippin*>- carp in crates'and i)ails has been pretty thoroughly tested
in the operations of the United States Fish Commission, with the follow-
ing results : Single shipments in pails have been made from Washington
into Xew York and Pennsylvania, and to Ohio, North Carolina, and
Tennessee. Some losses have been reported, but comparatively few,
the usual report being that the fish are received in good condition. In
the case of a shipment to Reedville, N. C, the fish were eight days
eii, route and were received in good condition.

Crates containing 10 buckets and 320 fish have been sent by ex-
press from Washington to Chattanooga and Grand Junction, Tenn., and
Jackson and Meridian, Miss., and distributed from these j^oints by Ex-
press to parties within a radius of 100 or 150 miles, without more than
the casualties incident to transportation by the methods heretofore pur-
sued. In conclusion, we may safely say that where the point of desti-
nation is not distant from the point of departure more tlian 24 hours,
25 or 30 carp may be safely shipped in an ordinary covered 4-quart tin
pail.

WHiere the temperature is kept below 60^ Fah., and freezing is
avoided, it is probable that tlie fish may be 6 or 7 days en route without
loss or injury. Some modification of the pail to prevent loss of water
by slopping over is desirable, and it is to be presumed that the ingenuity
of our fish-culturists will quickly supi^ly the want.

Washington, December 25, 1881.

IIVTRODUCTaOIV OF THE AtiAIVO OR ORFE INTO EIVGliAIVD.

[From The Field, March 28, 1875, 299.]

One of the few fresh-water fishes which have a wide range over the
continent of Europe, but are not found in the British Islands, is the
"aland'' or "nerlliug" of the Germans, the "id" of the Swedes, named
Leuciscus idus or melanotns by ichthyologists. It may be shortly char-
acterized as a chub with smaller scales; for whilst the chub has, at the
most, forty-six scales along the lateral line, the aland has never less
than fifty-six, and sometimes as many as sixty; in its habits also it much
resembles the chub, but prefers large to small streams, and inhabits
lakes as well as rivers. Its usual size is about twelve inches, but it is
known to have attained to a length of eighteen and twenty inches, and
a weight of six i)ounds.

Normally this fish has the same coloration as the chub, being some-
what darker on the back; and, consequently, the two species have been
constantly confounded with each other, and described under the same
names, even to within a very recent ])eriod. However, for more than
two centuries a singular variety, with bright colors like those of, a gold-
fish, has been cultivated in lakes and ponds of Bavaria, especially near

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 219

the town of Dinkclsbiihl. It is called "orfe" by the country people,
and Linna'us and most of the following writers mention it under the
name of Cyprinus or/us. Being one of the ichthyological curiosities of
the country, it did not escape the notice of the observant VVillughby,
^vho says, in his "Historia Piscium" (Oxon.fol. l(».SG),p.253: "At Augs-
burg we saw a most beautiful fish, which they call the 'root oerve' (red
orfe), from its vermilion color, like that of a pippin ai)ple, with which
the whole body is covered, except the lower side, which is white." He
gives a characteristic figure of the fish (tab. L, 9), and expresses a doubt
whether the color is natural or rather the product of some artificial
manipulation.

The orfe, however, is as natural and as permanent a variety as the
goldfish, which latter, in its original wild state, in the fresh waters of
China, has no bright golden colors, being scarcely distinguishable from
the Prussian carp in this respect ; in fact, the bright coloration of these
fishes is nothing more nor less than the sign of incipient albinism, and
has been observed also in other fishes, more especially- in the tench (in
which it is perpetuated by culture), and more rarely in the cod-fish,
haddock, common sole, turbot, and eel. Perfect albinism, or total
absence of a coloring pigment, appears to be very rare in fishes; indeed,
we know of only one species in which white individuals sometimes occur,
viz, the goldfish. Analogous cases of a similar modification of the
pigment are the common yellow varieties of the canary-bird, light-
cohu'ed moles and mice, and many other mammalian albinos whose
white hairs are tipped with yellow, producing a distinctly yellow tinge
over the whole fur.

We introduce this fish to the notice of the readers of The Field because
we have been informed that Lord Arthur Russell has succeeded in intro-
ducing it into England. He had already made an attempt last year to
obtain living specimens from Germany, but only two examples survived
the journey. Taking advantage of the experience then obtained, and
favored by the unusually low temp.'rature of the second week of the
present month, he had the gratification of receiving 112 specimens with-
out a single death during the journey. They were dispatched from
Wiesbaden, under the care of a man who arrived in London after a jour-
ney of only 25 hours. Next day the fish were safely deposited in a lake
at Woburn Abbey.

We have no doubt that Lord Arthur Russell's experiment will prove
to be a permanent success. We have always held that the chances of
success in introducing a foreign animal are ]>articularly great, if such
an animal has been kept in a more or less domesticated condition in its
native country. This is the case with the orfe. As an ornamental fish
it is far preferable to the goldfish, on account of its rapid rei)roduction,
larger size, and livelier habits. It takes the bait, and on the continent
it is eaten. In very small tanks or muddy ponds the goldfish will always
hold its ground, but for larger ponds and lakes with clear water we
know of no more ornamental fish than the orfe.

220 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

In conclusion, we may mention that Yarrell introduced the aland into
his "History of British Fishes," in consequence of having heard that a
sing:le s])ecimen had been obtained at the mouth of the Nith. He does
not appear, however, to have seen the specimen, and the figure and de-
scription are borrowed from a work on Scaftdinavian fishes.

REPORT OIV A TRIP I!V «ER:nANV TO SECtTRF CARP FOR THE UIVITEO

STATES FflSM COMiTIHSSBON.

ByDr. O. FirVSCH.

Bremen, August 20, 1875.
Professor B aird :

Having retnrned on the 18th from our trip to obtain fishes for you, I
hasten to give you a report.

As I wrote you in my last letter of August 10 1 had decided to help in the
matter as much as I could, and in consequence offered my services to
arrange matters for Mr. Welsher. It was clear that a mere interpreter
was not sufficient, and that the subject needed a man acquainted with
the matter, and of ability to represent your interest. So I decided to
assist him myself, although my own work was in many res])ects pressing.

I told yon in my last letter that there would be great difficulty in ob-
taining carp, as it is not theproi)er season, and I am glad to learn that
Mr. Hessel confirmed the statement.

I remark, though perhaps I have referred to it before, that our amp
are cultivated in .ponds, and are not fished for earlier than about the
last of October or November. These ponds are partially emptied of the
water, and the carp gather in the deep places, where they are caught
"with hand-nets. As the carp spawn in July, the ponds are full of young-
fishes, or eggs in the process of hatching, and this is the reason why
the fish cultivators dislike to draw off the water, as it is apt to de-
stroy the newly hatched fish. Besides it does not answer to empty the
water during the hot weather, as the heat would then be very de-
structive to the fishes of all sizes.*

As I wrote you in my letter, I had endeavored to ascertain where
there were smaller ponds that I might obtain a small number of each
of the chief varieties, the scaled carp {Ci/prmus carpio), the mirror
cari:) [C. rex-cypriuorum), and the naked car]) (C. nudus). Our principal
dilficulty was that but seldom were two of the kinds cultivated in any
one place, and we were obliged to go to different places. Now the
naked carp is chiefly raised in middle North Germany, the mii-ror carp
in South Germany, and the scaled (genuine) carp in North Germany,
(Mecklenberg, Holstein, &c.), in Bohemia and Silesia; the latter Jjeing

*F()r this reason at this time of year the fish-ciiltivators will not sell carp even if
oiiered high prices.

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 221

near my birthplace, I have the addresses of many cari> raisers in this
vicinity.

My chief object was to get the carp from a place as near as possible to
Bremen, in order that they might not be transported too long a distance;
as during; the hot weather we had at this time it would prove fatal to
the fish. With this end in view, I wrote a great number of letters seek-
ing the desired informatiou. Some were unanswered, and nearly all re-
gretted not being able to procure us carp at this season.

I wrote (July 30 and August 9) to Mr. Lewiu Fischhof, near Cassel,
who has a large establishment for mirror carp with ponds of more than
GOO morgen (acres) in area. Eeceived answer the Gth August; impossi-
ble to get carp now; not before October; then in sufficient numbers.
Eare to get fine carp.

Wrote to the Fisherj- Inspector Stengel, of Giersdorf, in Silesia, a
place where I know there are fine carp. Got answer in due time ; he
woukl procure me a supply of scaled carp, but as Messrs. Welsher and
Green took particular interest in mirror carp and naked carp, I could
not accept his kind offer; besides, it was too far away.

Wrote to W. Link, in W^ittengen, province of Hanover, one of the
nearest places to Bremen, but they could not furnish us now.

Wrote to Fishermaster Schieber, at Hameln, but he did not know of
any carp.

Wrote to fishery establishment at Lubbinchen, near Giiben, jirovince
of Brandenburg; received answer they would furnish us all three kinds,
but not before JS^ovember.

N. B. — Hessel obtained at Lubbinchen, goldtench {Cj/prinus tinea,
var. auratus).

Wrote to Mr. Traugolt Mende, at Drobrilugk, province of Branden-
burg. He could not give carp now ; has fine wrasse.

Wrote to the fisheries of the Prinz Schwarzenburg, in Witteugen,
Bohemia, who sells about 716,700 pounds a year; received no reply.

Wrote to the fisheries of the Prince of Schaumburg-Lippe, where the
finest naked carp are raised, which I know very well; received no reply
before we started.

Wrote to Oberamtmann Nehrkorn in Biddahausen, near Brunswick;
received no reply.

Wrote to the Nassauische Fischerei Actican Gesellschaft, in Wiesba-
den; replied we could have common carp, mirror carp, and goldorfe
{Idiis melanotas auratus).

When the letter of Mr. Hessel arrived I had already done this, but
as he gave me the address of Niirnberg and Gunzenhausen for mirror
carp, I wrote there also; but received no answer. Mr. Hessel advised
me not to go to Hungary, where he took his carii, as they would starve
during the hot weather, and he even thought it best to take carj) at
Holstein or Mecklenburg; but, unfortunately, we did not know to whom
to apply, and I thought it useless to go there.

222 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

To neglect nothing, I wrote to Messrs. Kupnert & Sons, in Hambnrg,
the address given by Mr. Hessel, to obtain more information about the
phices where we coukl get carp. The rei)ly was it wonkl be useless to
go there, as we could get none at this season, and not before November,
and, besides this, noue but the genuine scaled carj) are raised in this
part of Germany.

After considering all these circumstances, I thought it best to go to
Wiesbaden, where we were sure to get three different kinds, common
carp, mirror carp, and goldorfe. To go to Hungary was too far, and
my time would scarcely have allowed it, and at all the other i)laces we
would have obtained but a single kind.

You had desired to get carp and its varieties, and as I had hoped to
get naked carp at Brickeburg, I thought it possible to get all three kinds,
and goldorfe as ^\e\\. Of the latter you did not write, but Mr. Hessel
seems to have brought some over, although in your letter you speak of
only goldtench {Cyprinus tinea -anrata).

We started on the 14th (Sunday) to Brickeburg, which lies nearly on
the route to Wiesbach, but all my endeavors to obtain a supply of naked
carp were fruitless.

In the pond near the principal castle we saw a great many naked carp,
a.mong them fellows of about 30 pounds weight, but the Hofmarshall and
the Oberforestmaster, the only persons who would have power to let
us fish with a hook, were absent, and no one could allow us this ])nxi-
lege.

In the afternoon we drove to Heesen, a village in the neighborhood of
Brickeburg, where, also, my efforts were fruitless. Mr. Bodeman, the
superintendent of these fisheries, tried (after we went away) to catch a
supply by hook and net, but without success; and you may be sure he
did what he could.

In the evening we went, by the way of Hanover and Frankfort, to
Wiesbaden, where we arrived, at 11 o'clock a. m. the 15th. I went
immediately to j\Ir. Kirsch, the director of the Nassauische fishery estab-
lishment. We went on Monday with him to Hochst, near Frankfort,
where there is a second establishment. To my great regret, there were
fewer mirror carp than he thought, and, in consequence of the extremely
hot weather, he dared not run the water off, and, as there were small
islands in the pond, the fish escaped the net. ^Ve could only get common
scaled carp and goldorfe.

The latter, I told you, is not a genuine species, but a red variety of the
aland or nerfling {Idns mehowtus), ^]n^t as the goldtench is of the com-
mon tench. Although Mr. Kirsch, who has hatched goldorfe for eight
years, is convinced that it is a valid species, scientific people do not be-
lieve this : neither do tbey consider it as delicious a fish as the genuine
species.

The aland is not valued very highly, but, on the other hand, Mr. Kirsch
has kei^t this variety for eight years, and they are very dear, being very
rare.

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 223

You may reckon at all events the goldorfe to be a rare fisli, and if
Mr. Hessel has brought them over, you possess one of the rarest of our
fishes. There may possibly be fouuu considerable difficulty in hatching
them. You should keep them in small ponds apart from all rapacious
fishes.

In accordance with with. Mr. Welsher's agreements we procured —

Marks.
39 small orfc (yearlings), at 1.70 marks 06. 30

5 middle size orfe (2 year olds), at 3 marks 15. 00

6 large orfe (4 and 5 year olds), at 6 marks 36. 00

50 small carp (commou scaled), at 50 pfennigs 25. 00

142. 30

We started with them in three tin cans (borrowed from the estab-
lishment at Wiesbaden), on the morning of the 17th, with the express
steamer from Bieberich to Cologne, where we arrived at 5.30 p. m.

It was the hottest day we had had during the summer. The thermo-
meter (Eeaumur) indicated 27° in the shade (95° F.). It is needless to
enumerate the difficulties we encountered in the care of the fish.

Mr. Welsher supplied them at short intervals with fresh water from
the Ehine, and with great trouble I obtained a piece of ice, otherwise
we should have lost all the fishes within the first hour. Many of them
turned on their backs, but fresh water and ice revived them. On reach-
ing Cologne, we had lost oulj two of the carp.

At Cologne I had some trouble to get the fish into the baggage-car of
the express train, as this is not allowable in this country; but I spoke
to the superintendent, who was kind enough to allow it. I ordered by
telegraph fresh water to be ready at the few places the train stopped
longer than three minutes, and so, with great trouble and much fatigue,
we arrived at 4 o'clock a. m. on the ISth, the fish being all in good con-
dition, as the night had been cool.

Here, in Bremen, we have deposited them in a fine marble water
reservoir, where they continually get fresh cold water, so that they are
in first-rate condition. Mr. Welsher will go on Wednesday (25th), as the
Saturday steamer is so crowded there is no place for him. I have no
doubt he will bring over the fishes safely, being provided with fresh
water and ice.

I was disappointed to find that the carp we got at Wiesbaden were
not a fine and good quality, as they are indeed hybrids between the
carps {Cyprimis carpio) and tlie karausche {Cyprinus carassiiis) or brach-
sen {G. brcuna), a form which is very common and of little value, hav-
ing too many bones and too little flesh; but when we were at Wiesba-
den we did not see these smaller ones only as they were swimming
through the water, and I could not exactly distinguish what kind they
"uore. It may be that Mr. Kirsch did believe his carp were fine ones, as
genuine carj) are indeed rare, but, this hybrid one is common. I regret
that the carp are not good, for which I will be wholly responsible; but,

224 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

as I liave said before, I did not see the carji before they came to Bre-
men, as Avliile we were at the establishment they could not catch a single
one, so we trusted Director Kirscli, who said they were first-rate.

Besides these two kinds of fishes, Mr. Welsher will bring with him
fifty hybrids between Cyprinus carpio (good rape) and C. auratus which
we will get, as I told you in my last letter, from Mr. Wagner, at Olden-
burg.

This hybrid is a good one, grows to 4 to 7 pounds, has a fine flavor,
and will be a prolific species, as it has been crossed with fine carp.

This is all I could do to procure you fish now, but I will be able in
November to send you fine first-rate carp of all varieties, as they can be

carried then without a man to especially attend them.

* . * * * * * *

Yours, very truly,

O. FINSCH.

I received your letter of August 20, including Mr. Hess el's ; but letters
reach me here even if my imme is not correctly wantten, as I am well
known. So it was not necessary to send the letter again, though it was
cautious.

I received after awhile some information from Director Kirsch, at
Wiesbaden, in regard to the goldorfe. They spawn in June and July,
depositing their eggs on roots and small twigs of trees, from which mate-
rial a wall is built across the pond, which measures, perhaps, 25 to 30
long and 15 to 20 l)road. As soon as the eggs are deposited the year-
old fishes nuist be removed, because they eat up the eggs themselves ;
this is an important fact.

In regaixl to the transportation of carp, I think, after my experience,
they can be carried even in hot weather (as we were out the hottest day
of the whole year) if one has sufficient means to arrange things before,
as ice, fresh water, &c. The ride on the railway did not injure the fish
as the water had motion, but should be made only at night when it is
cool (our nights are cooler than in America); during the day they ought
to be kept quiet to refresh them. The worst part of it was not getting
the carp, for, I think, we could have brought them all in safety.
' If you should want a supply of fine carp, I could procure you all three
kinds, but I ought to have complete instructions and power long enough
beforehand to make all preparation; then I would go myself to places
in Bohemia and Silesia when fishing commences in order to choose, my-
self, every specimen, so that you would get true carp. Naked and mir-
ror carj) are, as you know, only cultivated A^arieties and not genuine
species. Some pisciculturists prefer these carp as being more valuable,
but others consider them of less value, as they grow slowly and are not
good for propagation.

The tench is a fish which I recommend you highly, bejng hardy and

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 225

thus easy to transport. In case yon want carp again write me early. I
think the followin.u- way would be best and cheapest: I woukl go after
the carp to the ponds wliere they are caught, taking with lue an assist-
ant to carry the tish to Bremen, and I wouhl settle with the Lloyd Com-
pany and with the captain of the steamer — some of whom I know per-
sonally— oifer him a reward in order to have one of the crew look after
the lishes several times a day. As the weather is cold in November,
the lishes will require no other attention than fresh water occasionally,
and this can as well be given by a common sailor. When the steamer
arrives you could send an experienced man to convey them to their
place of destination. In this way the expense would be much dimin-
ished, and I shall be able to have the necessary' funds here. You will
trust me to do all I can, jnst as I did this time. But now circumstances
were against me, and I regret that I was not better able to fulfdl your
expectations. But Mr. Welsher Avill tell you that I neglected nothing.
As I have told you before, the carp we obtained are not true carp, but
a hybrid form ; it T\ill be of less importance if Mr. Welsher does lose them.
They were injured in catching, not being handled carefully, some of them
showing spots destitute of scales, and these specimens will surely
starve. Such fish, when they lose slime and scales, are sure candidates
for death.

In regard to the shad, Mr. Welsher will tell you. After his statement,
lam sure the eggs were spoiled before they reached the steamer, so
that it would not be correct to say they died at sea. As the batching
apparatus of Mr. Green is no doubt perfect, I see no reason why the fishes
could not be hatched on the rente. It has never been tried before to
carry shad eggs by railway, and experience has shown that this spoils
the eggs, as they are too delicate to endure the shocks. But I believe
if they were taken down the Hudson in a small steamer they would
reach the Lloyd steamer in safety, and, with INTessrs. Welsher and Green,
I believe they would have been hatched successfully. So if there is
courage enough to try them the third time, it will be successful. I know
you have uinch perseverance, and I am in hopes that next year you will
make a new exxjeritnent. In this case it would be best not to take men
who have already crossed the ocean. But I will say no more on this
subject at present.

I hope this letter will give you all the information you wish, and so I
will close. Accept my best compliments and the expression of my kind-
est regards.

Ever yours, very truly,

O. FINSCH.

Bull. U. S. F. C, 81 15

]VlarcU94, 1882.

226 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION

THE WIi-VTEB EIADDOCK FISHERY OF NE^V EIVOKiAIVD.

By O. BKOTI^W OOOOE and CAPT. J. W. COLLINS.

The winter fishery for the capture of the haddock, Melanogrammus
ccgJefimis, is carried on chiefly from the ports of Gloucester and Port-
land, though jjarticipated in to some extent by vessels from Portsmouth,
Swamiiscott, and Boston. Although haddock are caught in large quan-
tities, from spring to fall, by numerous vessels and boats emjjloyed in
the inshore fisheries between Portland and Philadelphia, the winter
haddock fishery is i)eculiar in its methods. It is of comparatively recent
origin, dating back about thirty years. We are told that in 1850 im-
mense quantities of haddock were caught on the trawls in Massachu-
setts Bay, and that a petition was i)repared by the Swampscott fisher-
men asking for a law \yliich should prohibit trawl-fishing, on the ground
that this method would soon exterminate the haddock. It is impos-
sible to trace with any <legree of certainty the steps in the history of this
fisher^k , since it is pursued for a few months in the jear only, by vessels
otherwise occupied a large portion of the time. Since the fish have
always been disposed of in a fresh condition, they have been less care-
fully recorded.

FISHING GROUNDS.

The winter haddock fishery is prosecuted, from October to April, on all
of the inshore ledges and the nearest of the oft'-shore banks south of Sable
Island bank and north of Sandy Hook. The principal haddock fisheries
are, however, located north of Cape Cod. The depth at which the fish
are taken varies with the locality, but is within the limits of 25 and 90
fathoms; usually in water deeper than 30 fathoms.

In the fall, when fishing first begins, the vessels set their trawls along
the coast ftom Nantucket Shoals to Grand Menan, in 30 to 90 fathoms
of water. On the outside of Cape Cod the fishing is within 5 to 15 miles
of the shore; in Massachusetts Bay, principally on the outer sloi)e of
Middle Bank and the southern slope of the shoal ground that lies to the
eastward of Cape Ann, usually called "the Southeast," the eastern
l)art of the shoal water on Jeffries Ledge, and along the coast of Maine
within 30 miles of the shore, especially about Monhegan Fall, South-
southwest and Western Ground. Fishing in this region continues until
midwinter, and is kept up by a smaller class of vessels, such as those
hailing irom Portland, throughout the whole reason. In the latter part
of January and in February the larger vessels, comprising the major
portion of the Gloucester fleet, strike farther out to sea, fishing upon
George's Bank, usually in 25 to 40 fathoms, near the localities frequented
by the winter cod-fishermen, and also on the western part of the bank.
They also fish on Brown's Bank, in water about the same depth, and on

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 227

Le Have and about Cape Sable. The fishing on Le Have Bank for liad-
dock was first attempted in the winter of 1SS0-'81.* This fishery has been
attended with the greatest success. Fishing continues on these outer
banks until the end of the season, when it is time for the vessels to
engage in other fisheries.

THE FISHER3IEN.

The fishermen who take part in this fishery are usually picked men
from the Gloucester fleet. A large portion of them are eJigaged in the
mackerel fishery in the summer.

This fishery requires as much skill, pluck, and endurance as the hali-
but fishery, and men are selected in both of these fisheries on account
of similar qualifications, ifot unfrequently the same crew will remain
with the vessel in the summer when she is in the mackerel fishery, and
in winter when she is in the haddock fishery. There is so much compe-
tition among those who desire to ship with a good skipper that very
often his entire crew list is made out five or six months in advance.

THE "Vt:ssels.

The vessels composing the winter haddock fleet are chiefly the
staunchest and swiftest of those which in summer engage in the mack-
erel and cod fisheries. The Portland fleet is made up of a smaller
class of vessels, averaging from 35 to 40 tons ; these in summer are en-
gaged in the mackerel or shore fisheries. The few Swampscott and
Boston vessels which take part in the winter haddock fishery are market-
men and mackerelmen in the summer.

The rigging of the haddock catchers is precisely similar to that of
the halibut catchers, with the exception that very few of them carry
gaft"-toi)sails and riding-sails.t Their outfit of nautical instruments and
charts is, as might be expected, less complete.

Since the haddock vessels are rarely, if ever, anchored on the fishing
grounds, their arrangement of cables and anchors is very difierent from
that in use in the halibut and George's fleets. They usually have a
chain cable on their starboard side, and upon the port side a cable
similar to that used by the George's and halibut vessels, from 150 to
225 fathoms in length, which is stowed in the fore hold. One end of
this cable is bent to the anchor and the other passes down through a hole
in the fore hatch and is coiled below in the forehold. The anchors are
like those used on '• Georgesmen.""

The deck is arranged in a manner different from any that has yet
been described. There is usually a single gurry-i)en forward of the

*Capt. S. J. Martin, of Gloucester, writes, under date of May 10, 1881, as follows:
"The lirst vessel that went to Le Have Bank for haddock was the schooner Martha C,
of this port. She made her first trip there last winter."

t Since 1879 many of the largest vessels of the Gloucester fleet have been employed
in haddock fishing; these generally cari;^" riding-sails, and many have gafi'-topsails.

228 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

house, and the space between the sides of the gurry-pen and the house,
and the rail on either side, is so arranged that it can be divided into pens
for the reception of the fish. Three or four pens may be placed on each
side.

The remainder of the deck is clear, but there is a booby-hatch over
the main hatch, through which access is gained to the bait-room.

The haddock catchers do not ordinarily carry davits or a reefing-
plank. The mainsail is provided with an "out-hauler" or patent reef-
gear, which answers the purpose of a reef-tackle and earing, and fa-
cilitates the process of reefing from the deck. A few of the larger ves-
sels, however, are provided with davits and reeflng-planks.

The arrangement of the hold is also peculiar. The space which in a
halibut catcher is occupied by the forward ice-house is here taken up by
the bait room. The bait-room is sometimes, but not always, bulkheaded
off from the fore hold. It is one large compartment, with rough board
benches all around, on which the men sit while baiting their trawls. In
the center stands a stove. In this room the fishing-gear is always
stowed when not in use. The after hold is generally fitted up with jjens
resembling those in the after hold of a halibut schooner. In these pens
ice is carried when the vessel is making long trips. When large fares
are obtained, part of the fish are stowed in the bait-room, which, on the
larger vessels, is so arranged that partitions can be buili in it by sliding
boards into grooves. The haddock*schooners carry a larger amount of
ballast than those of any other class ; a vessel of 50 tons requiring 30
or 35 tons of ballast.

THE APPARATUS AND METHODS OF THE FISHERY.

Dories. — The larger haddock catchers carry six dories, the smaller four
or five.* Most of the dories used in this fishery are deeper and wider
than those in anj' other fishery, and are built specially for the purpose.
The ordinary dory is also frequently in use. These dories are 14 feet
in length. When on deck they are nested in the ordinary manner, two
or three on a side, and are stowed nearly amidships on each side of the
booby-hatch, not nested close to the rail, as is the practice upon other
vessels carrying dories. A haddock dory ready to leave the vessel in
order to set its trawl is provided with the following articles in addition
to the trawl-lines : Trawl-roller, two i)airs woollen nippers, dory-knife,
gob-stick, gatf, bailing scoop, thole-pins, two i)airs of 9-foot ash oars,
buoys, buoy-lines, anchors, and black-balls.

Trawls. — The haddock trawls have the ground-line of tarred cotton,
of 14 to 18 pounds weight to the dozen lines of 25 fathoms each in
length. Hemp is occasionally used, especially by the Maine vessels and
by some of the Irish vessels from Boston. The gangings are of w hite

"'The haddock-catchers of Maine and some of the ports iu Massachusetts, fishing
with "single dories," carry one for each man besides the skipper and cook. These
boats are 13 feet long, and managed by a single hshermau.

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 229

or tarred cotton, in weiglit about 4 to C pounds to the 300 fathoms of
line. They are about 2 feet in length, and are fastened to the ground-
line at intervals of 3^ feet. The manner of fastening the gangings to
the ground -line is different from that upon the halibut trawls.* The
hooks are numbers 15 or IG, center draught, and eyed.t The hooks are
fastened to the gangings in the same manner as on the cod trawls. The
haddock trawls are coiled in tubs, similar to those employed in the
Georges fishery. A tlour barrel, sawed off above the lower quarter
hoops, is used for a tub. Each tub of haddock trawl contains 500 hooks,
or about 292 fathoms of ground-line. Each dory is provided with six
or eight tubs of trawl, and two to eight of these tubs of line are set at
once, as the case may require. Sometimes only two or three tubs are
set at a time, and several sets are frequently made in a day when the
weather is suitable.

One of the anchors is similar fo those used upon the cod trawls, while
the second anchor is often of the killick pattern. The buoy-line is the
same as in the cod or halibut trawl, and its length is 15 to 30 fathoms
more than the depth of water in which it is used. The buoys are simi-
lar to those used in cod-trawling. Each buoy at the end of the trawl
has a black-ball upon it, and a middle buoy, without a staff or black-
ball, is also used I when the whole length of the trawl is set.§ Instead
of the regulation keg buoy, a "kit" is sometimes used by the haddock
trawlers.

Bait. — When it can be obtained, the principal bait used by the haddock-
catchers is menhaden slivers, salted. This is considered the best bait,
and it is said that haddock will often bite at this when nothing else will
tempt them. The trawl-hooks, when this bait is used, may be baited
days, or even weeks, in advance, while the vessel is waiting for a chance
to set. When fresh bait is used, the trawis can be baited only a short
time before, indeed, only a few hours before they are to be set.

Fresh herring is also used for bait, though to a comiiaratlvely limited
extent, until within the past two or three years, when they have been the
principal bait relied upon, as a suflficierit quantity of menhaden could
not be procured.

Capt. S. J. Martin, of Gloucester, writes: "Five or six years ago
pogie slivers were exclusively used for bait by haddock fishermen, but
for the past two winters none of these could be obtained, and mackerel
and herring have been the i)rincipal bait. The first vessels that started

* They are fastened either by tucking and hitching or by a simple hitch around
the ground-line.

t The Irish li8hern:en of Boston sometimes use a galvanized hook of the same size
■without an eye.

t This is to aid the fishermen in recovering their trawls in case they are parted at
either end.

$ When the trawls are set in shallow water where there is a rocky bottom three or
four middle buoys are sometimes used.

230 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

iu October (1880) took fresli mackerel for bait. When tlielierriug came
ou the coast, or were brought to Gloucester frozen, they were the bait
depeuded ou by the haddock catchers."

Iu cuttiug up menhadeu slivers for haddock bait, sectious are made
trapezoidal or square iu form, with a surface area of about a square inch.
One of these pieces is placed ou each hook, aud as the hooks are baited
the line is coiled iu the tub, the hooks beiug placed arouud on the side,
I)oiuts up.* When the fisherman is ready to bait his trawl he sits upon
his bench with the empty tub between his legs aud the trawl-line re-
moved from the tub and turned right side up in front of him, his bait
being in a bucket at his side. In his left hand he takes eight or ten
I)ieces of bait, and with both hands he pulls the line towards him, coil-
ing it iu the tub after baiting the hooks; he places them in the tub in
the manner just described.

As is always the case where a number of men are working together
at the same employment, there is sharp comj^etition among the men as
to who shall be the first to get his trawl baited. Tlie average time con-
sumed iu baiting 500 hooks is from 45 to 60 minutes, though the most
skillful men have been known to accomplish the task iu half an hour.
It will be seen that the labor of baiting three or four tubs, which falls
daily to each man when the fishing is good, occupies a considerable por-
tion of the day, or, rather, of the night, since the baiting is usually done
at night. In baiting at night each man has a lamp of peculiar pattern
which is fastened to the edge of his tub by a hook ; sometimes the trawls
are snarled, and the whole night is devoted to clearing and baiting
them. A man will go into the hold to bait after the fish are dressed iu
the evening and perhai^s not finish his task until daybreak, when it is
time to go out to set again.

Methods of fishing. — As has been remarked, the haddock catchers never
anchor ou the banks when fishing. The usage in this respect has greatly
changed within the last few years. When the fishery was less extensive
and was carried on entirely upon the inshore grounds they were accus-
tomed to anchor, set their trawfs and under-run them, but now the trawls
are all set while the vessel is lying to waiting for the dories. This opera-
tion is called "setting under sail," and its successful performance is one
of the most comx)licated evolutions performed by vessels and boats, re-
quiring a high degree of skill on the part of the men on the vessels and
in the boats.

Let us imagine ourselves on the deck of a haddock schooner at day-
break approaching Jeffries Ledge; the skipper, having first sounded
and obtained the desired depth of water, decides to make a set and
gives the order, " Get the top dories ready," at the same time indicating
how many tubs he thinks it desirable for each dory to set. The four
men to whom the two top dories belong adjust the .anchors, buoy-liues

* The Irish fishermen of Boston place their trawls in baskets, coiling the line in one
part aud putting the baited hoolrs iu another division of the basket.

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 231

and buoys which are already in the dories, and also place in them the
otlier necessary fishing-gear. The dory-tackles are then hooked on, and
the boats are swung- over the side of the vessel. The middle dories are
then equipped in a similar manner by" their respective crews, and as
soon as these are ready the top dories are dropped into the water and
paid astern and the middle ones are swung over the side, the bottom
dories being then prepared for action in their turn. The middle dories
are now dropped down and paid astern with the others^ and tlie bottom
dories are swung upon the sides and are ready to be lowered at the
proper moment. Eight men take their jjlaces in the dories towing
astern ; perhaps, in fact, the four men belonging to the top dories are
already there and ready to set.

The skipper now gives the order to one of the dories that was first
put out, "Throw out your buoy."' This being done the dory tows astern
of the vessel until the buoy-line runs entirely out; the men in the dory
then sing out, " Let go the painter." The dory is cast off and they begin
to S(^t their trawl in the ordinary manner, their course usually being to
leeward, and nearly at right angles with the direction of the vessel.
This operation is repeated in succession with each boat: the last dories
dropping astern after the others have been let go. Sometimes when
the wind is moderate and it is practicable, all six dories are dropped
down before the first begin to set. The boats' having been let go in the
manner described, are thus left scattered along in the wake of the
schooner at intervals of 100 to 200 fathoms, the first and the last dory
being from three-quarters of a mile to a mile and a half apart. As soon
as the dory has been dropped, the vessel keeps off and runs to leeward
and is ready to pick up the first one as soon as her trawl has been set,
and the others in regular succession. Tlie time occupied in setting the
trawls under sail varies from half an hour to an hour.

When the dories are picked up, a part or all of them are taken on
deck and the vessel immediately begins to worlc back towards the
weather buoys; as soon as the weather buoys are reached, the boats
are usually dropped again in the manner already described and the men
begin hauling. This second evolution occupies from one hour to an
hour and a half, according to the strength of the wind and other cir-
cumstances. As the dories are dropped a second time they find them-
selves at the very place where they threw overboard the first anchor
and a mile or two to the windward of the place where they dropped
their last anchor. They are now able to haul to the leeward, which is
easier than hauling to the windward and is more advantageous to the
fishing, since the tender-mouthed haddock are less liable to drop from
the hooks of a trawl when it is slack than when it is taut.

For the dories to haul their trawls occupies from one to four hours,
according to the length of the trawl, the number of fish on the hooks,
and the state of the weather. While the dories are hauling, the vessel
is lying-to ^vith the jib to windward and drifting back and forth along

232 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

the line of boats, waiting for the men to finish hauling their trawls or
signalize, by raising one of the oars, that they have a load of fish and
wish to be taken on board. After the lines have all been hauled the
dories are again taken on deck-, unless another set is to be made on the
same ground. When the dories set the whole length of lines it is very
unusual for a vessel to make more than one set in a day ; sometimes,
however, a smaller number of lines is set and the operation is twice
l)erforined. In exceptional instances, after the whole string of tubs has
been once set, a smaller number, perhaps a tub to each man, is set in
the latter part of the day.

The operation of shooting alongside of the dories and picking them
up is one of the most difficult feats of seamanship which can be accom-
plished by a fishing schooner.

The haddock trawls are often set in rough weather and at times when
there is what would be called a strong whole-sail breeze, and, occasion-
ally, when it blows hard enough to make it necessary to reef the sails.
After the trawls have been set and the vessel worked back to the
weather-buoys, if the weather looks at all threatening, it is customary
to take the bonnet out of the jib and put a reef in the mainsail, so that
if the wind should increase while the trawls are being hauled the vessel
can be managed by the skipi:)er and the cook — the onlj' men left on board.

As might be exx^ected, men are sometimes lost in this method of fish-
ing, the losses being occasioned by sudden snow-storms which cut the
dories off from the view of those on board of the vessel, or by heavy
squalls which render it impossible for the schooner with only two men
on board to go through the necessary evolutions.

It should be stated that the evolution of setting under sail is varied
at different times and by different skippers, but that the differences in
the manner of performing the evolutions are not of much importance,
and that the most common method is that which is here described.

When fishing on George's Bank, the Gloucester haddock vessels are
obliged by the force of the tide to resort to another method of setting,
which is called ''double-banking the trawl." The tide is so strong that
the trawls cannot be set in the ordmary way, for the buoys would be
carried beneath the surface. Two dories are therefore lowered at once,
and joiutl}^ perform the act of setting; only two tubs are set by each
pair of dories. The set is made in the following manner: The men in
one of the dories hold fast to the weather-buoy while the men in the
other dory set the trawl. After the trawl is out, the dory Avhich sets
it hiAda fast to the lee buoy until by some signal, such as lowering the
jib, the skipper of the schooner gives the order to haul. The trawls are
left on the bottom 15 or 20 minutes before" they are hauled. The men
in the two dories begin to haul siuiultaneously; the anchors are thus
first raised from the bottom and presently the bight of the trawl and
the two boats drifti along with the tide, the distance between them grad-
ually narrowing as ttwy haul.

Haddock are often found so plenty on George's that it is not nee-

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 233

essary to set more line at a time, even were it easier to do so, since a
single tub of trawl will often bring" up enough fisli to fill a dory. Sev-
eral sets of this kind can be made in a daj^ when the weather is fiivor-
able.

Some of the Maine and Swampscott vessels send out only one man in
a dory; this usage is called "iishing single dories," and is, of course,
practicable only in comparatively moderate weather.

THE MANNER OF CARING FOR THE FISH.

As the fish are brought alongside they are pitched into the pens
already described. As soon as the dories are discharged and taken on
deck, and the vessel is under way, the men begin to dress the fish. The
process of dressing differs entirely from that of dressing cod; there
are no dressing-tables or dressing-tubs. The men distribute themselves
among the pens. Four or five men are engaged in rlpi)ing the fish, this
operation being performed by seizing the fish by the eyes or some part
of the head with the left hand and ripping them downward from the
throat. The remainder of the crew occupy themselves in taking out
the livers and roes, which are saved in barrels separately, and in remov-
ing the viscera. The fish are washed by pouring buckets of water over
them as they lie in the i)ens or on deck, and are packed away in the
hold or left on deck, unless, on account of distance Irom the land or
mildness of the weather, it is necessary to ice them, in which case two
or three men go into the hold and stow the fish away between layers of
ice. The fish are iced with greater or less care, according to the length
of time expected to elapse before the arrival of the schooner at the mar-
ket. All the vessels going to Le Have, George's and Cape Xegro carry
from five to six tons of ice each trip.

PRODUCTIVENESS OF THE FISHERY.

The vessels of the Gloucester fleet, in the winter of 1880-81, obtained on
an average 350,000 pounds of haddock, valued at $6,000. The schooner
" Martha C." obtained about 000,000 pounds, stocking $11,500. The
"Edith M. Pew" obtained 550,000 pounds, stocking about $11,000.

Capt. S. J. Martin, of Gloucester, Mass., writes under date of Feb-
ruary 12, 1882, that the schooner " Martha C." arrived yesterday with
90,000 pounds of haddock ; she was gone eight days. Schooner " Josie
M. Calderwood," 85,000 iwunds, gone seven days. Schooner " H. A. Dun-
can," 80,000 pounds, gone seven days. Four vessels left Gloucester on
Saturday and were back on Wednesday, each with 40,000 pounds had-
dock, liaving fished one day-and-a-half. That is good and quick work.

"Schooner 'Mystic,' Capt. John McKennon, has stocked the year
ending February 8, 1882, $21,003. He claims high line of the shore
haddocking fleet, and so far as Ave know this is the largest stock ever
reported in this fishery. The crew shared $780.06. In 1880 he stocked

234 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

$17,765, the crew sharing $705." — [Cape Ann Advertiser, February 10,
1882.

" The new schooner ' Dido,' recently built at Essex for Mr. George
Steele of this city, has been engaged in the haddock fishery just one
month to-day, during which time she has made three trips, stocking
$3,750. On her last trip she stocked $1,400. Her crew shared for the
month, $138 each. Tlie 'Dido' is commanded by Capt. William N.
Wells. Schooner 'Richard Lester,' Capt. Ozro B. Fitch, on a recent
haddock trip stocked $ 1 ,100." — [Cape Ann Advertiser, February 10, 1882.]

The largest haddock fare ever landed was that of the schooner
'Martha C of Gloucester, Capt. Charles Martin, which arrived at Bos-
ton on Friday from a Georges haddock trip, and weighed off 93,000
pounds haddock, stocking $1,943, the crew sharing $91, the result of
two-and-a-half days' fishing. Absent ten days. This was the largest
catch and best stock ever reported in the haddock fishery. — [Cape Ann
Advertiser, February 24, 1882.]

The catches of the average Portland and Boston vessels were not,
probably, more than half as great. The' "Martha C," before alluded to
in thirteen hours' fishing in the winter of 18S0-'81 caught 90,000 pounds
of cod and haddock. The total amount of haddock carried into Boston
in 1870 was 17,000,000 pounds ; of this amount probably at least
13,000,000 were obtained by the winter haddock vessels. The total
yield of this fishery does not, probably, fall below 18,000,000 to
20,000,000 pounds.

RUNNING FOR THE MARKET.

'No class of vessels, not even the halibut schooners, take more risks
in running for market than do the haddock schooners. It is of the
utmost importance to them to reach the market with their fish in good
condition, and, if possible, to be in advance of other vessels engaged in
the same business. In the stormiest of weather all sail that they will
bear is crowded upon them, and harbors are made even in heavy snow
and fog. The trips are short, averaging frequently not more than two
or three days, and rarely longer than a week or ten days ; they are, there-
fore, constantly running for the land, and are more accustomed to making
the coast than the halibut vessels, and become so familiar with the har-
bors, most frequently resorted to, especially with that of Boston, that
they are able to enter them when no other vessels, probably not even
pilot boats, would care to make the attempt. What has already been
said about the dangers encountered by the halibut schooners will api^ly
as well, in its fullest extent, to the haddock schooners.

THE MANNER OF OUTFIT.

In the winter haddock fishery every man supplies his own dory and
outfit comiilete, besides paying his share of the provision bill. In the
settlement of the voyage, the vessel draws one-fourth of the net stock.

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 235

or, in the case of the ohler vessels, according to the old system, only
one-fifth, after certain stock charges have been deducted for bait,
ice, wharfage, and towage. The remaining three-fourths or four-fifths
of the net stock is divided equally among the crew, the owner i^aying
the skipper's commission or percentage from the vessel's quarter. The
average share of the Gloucester crews for the winter of 1880-'81 was
about $290. The most successful shared $500 to $550. The largest
stock ever made in one day's fishing in the winter shore fishery up to 1880
was that of the "Eastern Queen," of Gloucester, which carried to the
Boston market, in 1873, 25,000 pounds of haddock, and stocked $1,100.
This vessel also made the largest stock of that season, realizing in five
months $10,250 clear of all expenses, the crew sharing $550 each. The
crew of the schooner "David J. Adams," in March, 1881, shared $107
each in a ten days' trip in the haddock fishery

THE HADDOCK FISHERY FIFTY YEARS AGO.

A writer in the Fishermen's Memorial and Eecord Book thus de-
scribes the haddock fishery in the early part of the present century :

"The fitting-out of the fleet for the haddock fishery commenced about
the first of April. The first move was to run the boats on the beach, or
landing as it was then called, and have them calked and graved. The
latter process consisted in applying a coat of pitch to the bottom and
burning it down with a tar-barrel, which gave a smooth and glossy
surface. Painted bottoms in those days were very rare.

The time occnpied in making a haddock trip was from two days to a
week, the fish being mostly taken on Old Man's Pasture, Heart's Ground,
and Inner Bank, about twelve miles oft" of Eastern Point. The fish were
taken to Charlestown for a market, and purchased by the hawkers —
among whom were Johnny Harriden, Joe Smith, Isaac Eich, and others,
who took them over to Boston in hand-carts and retailed them at a
good profit. The codfish were generally salted. The smallest were
cured for the Bilboa market, and the largest were made into dun fish,
as they were called, for home consumption. They were kept on the
flakes several weeks, and thoroughly dried until they became of a red-
dish color, and were highly esteemed as an article of food. The baking
season commenced in July, and the pollock fishery was prosecuted from
September to the middle of November. Each boat carried three men —
skipper, forward hand, and cook, who went at the halves, as it was
called, the crew receiving one-half the gross stock, and the owners the
balance." *

* Fishermen's Memorial and Record Book, Gloucester, 1873, p. 73.

236 BULLETIN OF THE UXITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

THE E'KOTOKOA ASfD PKOTOPBIYTES COrt^J^IDERED AS TME PRI-

MAfieV OB IIVI>SRE(1;T ^OrJS€E OF GTEIE FOOS> OF F1SI2ES.

By JTOMW A. RYOER.

lu the course of observations made during tlie last few years the
writer has been more and more Impressed with the importance of the
Protozoa and Protophytes as an indirect or primary source of much of
the food consumed by man. This is notably true of what is known as
fish and shell-fish food. As very striking- instances of the truth of these
propositions, we need only to allude to the various edible species of
the herring family, the shad, herring, and sardine, the gill-rakers of
which are modified so as to enable them to strain the minute living or-
ganisms out of the water which is passed through the mouth in resjn-
ration; the menhaden or Brevoortia, which is of the same family and
swarms along our coast, and which in its turn furnishes a large propor-
tion of its food to the edible blueflsh, and so serves this tyrant of the
sea as a strainer, elaborator, and accumulator, as it were, of the minuter
life of the oceanic wastes which it inhabits. The oyster, in like manner,
subsisting, as it does, entirely u])ou Protozoa, Diatoms, minute ciliated
larvie, &c., reminds us forcibly that for some of the most savory lux-
uries of the table we are indirectly indebted to the existence of count-
less hosts of living marine beings, which can be rendered visible only
with the help of a microscope.

Comparatively few fishes appear to be able to utilize the protozoa
directly as a source of food. The most remarkable exception to this
rule was first made known by Professor S. A. Forbes, of Illinois, who
found the intestiues of certain young suckers or Catostomidm packed
with the shells or tests of difilugian rliizopods. In the Proceedings of
the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia for 1881, Professor
Leidy states that upon examining two slides containing some of tho
intestinal contents of young Mijxostoma macrolepidotum and Erimyzon
sucetta submitted to him for exandnation by Professor Forbes he was
able to distinguish the shells of six distinct species of rhizo])ods or test-
covered amoeboid Protozoa. The habits of the fishes in question are,
however, mud-loving, and, since they are provided with a more or less
suctorial mouth, it is easy to understand how they might readily con-
sume large numbers of these Protozoans where the surface of the ooze
of the bottoms of the streams and pools inhabited by the fishes was
favorable to the ]iropagation and healthy existence of the former.

In order to render the vast multitude of Protozoa available as fish-
food it is necessary that they be consumed by larger organisms, which
in their turn may be consumed bj^ the fishes. Upon investigating the
literature relating to the food of the smaller crustaceans, especially of
the Entomostraca which enter so largely into the food supplies of most

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 237

younnf fishes and very many adult forms, I find tbat the almost unani-
mous testimony of various observers is to the effect that these creatures
are larg^ely carnivorous, and subsist mostly upon protozoa, or the low-
est grade of animal existence. In proof of the foregoing, the following
extracts are here introduced.

lu his Natural History of the Biitish Entomostraca, page 0 of the
introduction, Dr. W.Baird remarks: " I have no doubt that most of the
entomostraca are essentially carnivorous, and I have frequently seen
specimens of CyrrHs in their turn, as soon as dead, attacked immediately
bj' quantities of Cyclops quadricornis, which in a few minutes had fast-
ened themselves uijon the dead animal, and were so intent upon their
prey that they were scarcely frightened away from it by being touched
with a brush. In a short time the Cypris might be seen lying at the
bottom of the vessel, the valves of the shell separated and emptied of
its contents. Leeuweidioek and I>e Geer not only maintain that the
Cydops quadricornis lives upon animalcules, but that it even preys upon
its own young, a fact which I have also noticed myself. Jurine asserts
that the Cyclops quadricornis is carnivorous from taste, and only her-
bivorous from necessity; while the Daphnia ptdex^ he distinctly affirms,
lives upon animalcules. Place a few Entomostraca, such, for example,
as the Dapliiiia', Chirocephali, Lyncei, «&c., in a vessel with pure, clear
water, and only some A'egetable matters in it, and they gradually be-
come languid, transparent, and finally die; but mix with this water
some which contains numerous Infusoria, and the Entomostraca will
then be seen speedily to assume another aspect. They become lively
and active, and the opacity of their alimentary canal testifies sufficiently
the cause of it. When, indeed, we consider the amazing quantity of
animals which swarm in our ponds and ditches, and the deterioration of
the surrounding atmosphere which might ensue from the putrefaction
of their dead bodies, we see a decided fitness in these Entomostraca
being carnivorous, thus heli)ing to prevent the noxious effects of putrid
air which might otherwise ensue ; whilst they in their turn become a
prey to other animals which, no doubt, serve their purposes also in the
economy of nature."

"The food of the Lynceidw,''^ says Baird, "consists of both animal
and vegetable matter, and while they prey upon animalcules smaller
than themselves, they, in their turn, are devoured in great numbers by
insects larger than they are."

According to Pritchard, the Chyodorus sphaericus is the choice food of
a species of fresh-water Nais which he calls Lurco. "So great is the
voracity," he says, "of this creature tliat I have seen a middle-sized one
devour seven Lyncei in half an hour."

Referring to the DapJiniada', our author again observes: "The food
of these animals, according to Straus, consists of vegetable matter, and
not animal ; but I have found that of two groups placed in se])arate
vessels of clear water, the one ha^ing only particles of vegetable matter

238 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

placed beside tliem, wliile with the other there were also introduced
iufusorial animalcules, the latter were much stronger, more active, and
thro"e better than the former."

This appears to be very strong evidence in favor of the auimalcular
diet of these crustaceans. Other evidence, too, of quite as convincing
a character is not wanting. Those who have been in the habit of col-
lecting (piautities of microscopic material from ponds and ditches have
frequently observed very large schools of Entomostraca in such places
where the water as a rule is not absolutely stagnant, but where an
abundance of duck-weed, fresh-water alg;© of many kinds, as well as
various water plants of the higher orders make a splendid nidus for
all kinds of monads and ciliated and amoeboid Protozoa. These are the
Xilaces where Cyclops, Daphnia, and allies flourish inland in fresh water.
The writer has also noticed them particularly abundant in the wide
river flats near the mouth of the Susquehanna at Havre de Grace, where
there are large areas many acres in extent which are covered with a
liixuriaut growth of Potamogeton^ Anacliaris. and Vallisneria, making a
d«use mat of delicate stems and leaves upon which countless multi-
tudes of Protozoa may fix themselves and abide. If, in rowing through
such masses of aquatic vegetation, one will stop the boat and stir care-
fully among the plauts with the hand over the side and cautiously
w^atch the result, one will often notice that great n^^mbers of Entomo-
straca have been frightened from their leafy retreats. These are the
places where young shad ought to be liberated; in such idaces they
would find an abundance of food at an early period, or as soon as they
were fitted to partake of nutriment by swallowing.

Just as we find the fresh water forms of Entomostraca take to the
shelter of aquatic vegetation at the mouths of rivers, so it appears that
many of the marine forms seek i)rotection, and probably food, under
cover of the fronds of marine algtie. Here is what their most recent
monographer says in relation to this point : '^A large number of species
haunt almost exclusively the forests of X^minfflr/fc which grow on rocky
coasts at and below low- water mark; the fronds of Laminar iasaccharina
in particuUir are the favorite abode of many species." (Brady, Monog.,
Brit. Copep., Introd. I, p. 7.) Again, on page 9, he remarks, "The
washing of the fronds and roots of Laminarirc, which may be dragged
up by means of the hooked grapnels used on many coasts by kelp-
burners, often affords multitudes of Copepoda."

They appear in many cases to be surface swimmers. I have myself
seen schools of several thousands of Daphniadw of a greenish yellow
color in the ditches south of Camden, N. J., swimming at the surface of
the water at midday in the bright sunlight. In the vicinity of Wood-
bury, in the same State, my friend, Mr. W. P. Seal, has taken great
numbers of a bright red-colored Coi>epod, apparently related to the genus
Pontella, and j>erhaiis undescribed. They were sufficiently abuudant
in some cases to impart a red tinge to the water.

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 239

Brady (Mouograph British Copepoda) observes in liis introductiou,
vol. i, page 9: "The beds of fresh- water lakes seem to be very sparsely
populated with Copei)oda, aud as to swimmiug species it may, as a
general rule, be said that the weedier the pool and the smaller its ex-
tent, the more abundant in all ])robability the Entomostraca.

" Many of the marine species pass their life apparently near the sur-
face of the open sea, and some of these, such as Calanus finmarchianusy
Gunner, aud Aiiomolocera Patersonii, Templeton, are frequently found
in immense profusion, the first-named species having been said to form
a very important part of the food of the Greenland whale, and it is re-
markable that in the Arctic seas not only do the Entomostraca attain
an enormous development in point of numbers, but also in individual
size; Arctic specimens, for example, of Calanus fiinmarcliianus aud Me-
iridia armata being many times the bulk of those taken in our own lati-
tude." {I.e.)

According to H. Woodward, in his article Crustacea, Encyclopaedia
Britannica, the fecuudity of the Copepoda is truly surprising. " Cyclops
quadricornis is often found with thirty or forty eggs on each side, and
though those species which have but a single ovisac do not carry so
many, their number is still very considerable. Jurine isolated speci-
mens of Cyclops, aud found them to lay eight or ten times within three
months, each time about forty eggs. At the end of a year one female
would have produced 4,442,189,120 young ! Cetochilus is so abundant,
both in the northern seas and in the South Atlantic, so as to serve for
food to such an immense animal as the whale. They color the sea for
many miles in extent, and when the experienced whaler sees this ruddy,
hue upon the ocean he knows he has arrived at the 'pasture of the
whales'. They are to be seen in vast quantities oft" the Isle of May in
the Firth of Forth during the summer months. Many Cetacea are at-
tracted thither, and vast shoals of fish also come to feed upon them.
One anomalous type of free copepod is the ISotodelphys ascidicola, de-
scribed by Allman, which is found swimming freely in the branchial
sack of Ascidia communis.''''

The writer, in passing, would remark that he has frequently met with
Copepoda swimming freely in the ventral part of the branchial space
of il/j/ft arenaria, in which the animals were probably not parasitical or
commensal, but had been drawn from without into the respiratory space
of the mollusk through the incurrent part of its siphon.

In the same article as previously quoted Woodward observes: "The
Cladocera are chiefly fresh water, and are distributed over the whole
world. Of this order the Daphnia pulex, so abundant in our [British]
fresh waters, is a good example. So numerous are they in our jjonds in
summer as frequently to impart a blood-red hue to the water for many
yards in extent. In order to realize the wonderful fecundity of this and
allied genera, it is necessary to realize that when a Daphnia is only ten
days old eggs commence to be formed within the carapace, and under

240 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

favorable conditious of light and temperature it may hare three broods
a month, or even a greater number, the larger species having as many as
forty or fifty eggs at once."

The remarkable fecundity of the Copepoda explains the extraordinary
abundance of the free-swimming species upon the high seas, and even
bays, where vast schools of these crustaceans become, in turn, the food
of vast schools of herrings, menhaden, and shad. Doubtless, the move-
ments of these fishes on the high seas are determined by the abundance
of their favorite food in various localities; that, like the whale, they
seek their marine pasture of crustaceans, as argued by Mobins. Even
larger forms of fishes, such as the huge basking shark {Cetiorhhms max-
■imus), has its branchial apparatus adapted to capture small jielagic
organisms, in the same way as the Clupeoids. The jirodigious numbers
of herrings and menhaden is a jiroof of the abundance of the minute
pelagic organisms upon which, with scarcely a doubt, it may be sup-
posed they subsist. It is also not improbable that the vast schools of
pelagic Entomostracans are in pursuit of still smaller protozoan prey,
upon which they subsist aiul maintain their marvellous reprodu<;tive
powers. Moseley, in his "Notes by a Naturalist on the Challenger," ob-
serves: "The dead pelagic animals must fall as a constant rain of food
upon the habitation of their deep-sea dependents. Maury, speaking of
the surface Foraminifera, wrote, 'The sea, like the snow-cloud, with its
flakes in a calm, is always letting fall upon its bed showers of micro-
scopic shells.'" Moseley records that he estimated, from experimental
data, that it would take four days and four hours for a dead Snliya to
fall to the bottom where the sea was 2,()()() fathoms in depth. The deep-
sea fauna is probably well supi)lied with food from such sources. The
researches of Mr. John Murray of the Challenger fully confirm and
greatly expand the significance of the views of lieutenant Maury in
relation to the destiny of the marine foraminiferpJ shells. Wyville
Thompson, Voyage of the Challenger, I, 210, observes: "Mr. Murray
has combined with a careful examination of the soundings a constant
use of the tow-net, usually at the surface, but also at depths from ten to a
thousand fathoms ; and he finds the closest relation to exist between
the surface tauna of any particular locality and the deposit which is
taking place at the bottom. In all seas, from the equator to the polar
ice, the tow-net contains GlobujerinceJ^ Some of these surface Forami-
nifera are relatively large, Orhnlina universa being as much as a fiftieth
of an inch in diameter, and hence of a sufficient size to be preyed upon
by a larger arthropod. The remarkable Pyrocystis nocUluca, discoA^ered
by Mr. Murray, and nearly a millimeter in diameter, is another inter-
esting surface form, as is also the P. fusiformh^ which is allied to it.
Both are phosphorescent surface swimmers, and fall within the reach of
other surface animals as a probable source of food. To these may be
added the curious group of the Challengerida, together with the whole
of the Badiolariaj "svith their siliceous shells, which, in the warmer parts

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 241

of the liigb seas, actually tinge the surface when some of the highly-
colored forms are abundant. From the surface of the mid- Atlantic the
Challenger crew obtained stalked infusorians fixed to the shell of Spi-
rula, also an abundance of large radiolarians. Haeckel, Monograph of
the Eadiolaria, says the largest living Eadiolaria measure only a few
lines in diameter, but most of them are much smaller, and attain
scarcely a tenth, down to a twentieth of a line in diameter. At Saint
Jerome's Creek, Maryland, in an arm of the former, now used as an
oyster park, the writer found an abundance of a fresh- water Heliozoan,
not specifically distinguishable from Actinophrys sol. They were found
in great abundance at times on the surface of the slate collectors which
had been put down for the purpose of enabling the free-swimming fry
of the oyster to fix itself. This raises the question whether the fresh-
water protozoan fauna does not overlap the marine. The water in the
situation mentioned was not simply brackish, but positively salt. In the
same place great numbers of stalked and tube- or test- building ciliate
forms of Protozoa were also found. The magnificent bottle-green Freia
producta was found in the same locality in the greatest profusion. Some-
times several hundred might have been counted on a single square inch of
the surface of oyster shells, slates, or boards, giving such surfaces a dark-
greenish or speckled tint from their numbers. Very small species of
nudibranchiate mollusks {EoUs and Doris) were found creeping amongst
and over the forest of Protozoa, i)asturLng off of them. Amongst the
tubes of the Freia, and attached to them, a small operculate Cothurnia,
with a rich brown-colored test, was found in abundance, and, rarely, a
very curious form of Tititinnus, with a tubular, subulate test, to the
inside of which the stalk of the inhabitant was attached, at one side,
about half way up from its base. The open, or mouth, end of the per-
fectly hyaline test was very strongly toothed, or serrate. The species
may be named Tintinnus Fergusonii. Another species of Freia has been
detected, on the coast of New Jersey, by Professor Leidy, and, from a
verbal description given me by Dr. H. C. Evarts, a species occurs in the
' vicinity of Beaufort, N. C. So abundant was Freia producta in Saint
Jerome's Creek that I apprehend that in its free-swimming young state,
previous to the time that it commenced to build its test, it afforded not
an inconsiderable proportion of food to the oysters planted in some
parts of those waters. Besides the Freia there were innumerable indi-
viduals of Vorticella observed. One of these had a very thick, brown-
ish cuticle ; but for numbers th<^se were again very greatly exceeded by
the compound stalked genera of bell-animalcules. Upon the very com-
mon alga, Laminaria, these were abundant, and upon the fronds of
another alga, the Grinnellia, in three or four fathoms of water, near the
middle of the Chesapeake, their number was truly astounding. In a
few such places where these algse were dredged up from the bottom,
covered with innumerable colonies of protozoans, it would doubtless be
much within bounds to state that there were 1,000 individual protozoan
Bull. U. S. F. C, 81 IG Api-ii S§, 1 8 82,

242 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

zooids to the superficial square iucli of frond surface. At this rate
there would be 39,204,000 zooids found to populate a single square rod
of frond surface. Estimating the number at only 100 per square inch,
which is low, and which would, I think, represent a fair average over
considerable areas where the conditions of life were favorable, there
would still be a stalked protozoan population of nearly four millions to
the square rod. The most abundant of these compound forms was one
which very much resembles Zoothamnium alternans, Glaperede, found on
the west coast of Norway. The same form was again found in vast
abundance upon algsB in Cherrystone Eiver, near the mouth of the
Chesapeake, during the season of 1881. Upon one occasion I found it
in great abundance growing on all parts of the body of a Finnotlieres
which was living in the gill-cavity of an oyster, its swarmers, or young,
as they were thrown off, in all probability forming part of the food sup-
ply of the mollusk.

I have been interested upon several occasions to observe that the very
minute stalked collared monads, Salpingceca Rud Oodos w/a, are frequently
to be found attached to the stems of the compound colonies of bell-ani-
malcules, or gathered about in the vicinity of the point of attachment
of a single one. In such cases the monads appear to derive a benefit
from the currents or vortices set uj) in the water by the waving of the
ciliary crowns of their giant neighbors, which bring particles of food to
their very doors as it were. On one occasion I found individuals of a
species of Vorticella fixed to the egg-membrane of the ova of the cod-
fish at Wood's Holl, Massachusetts, as had been previously observed by
E. E. Earll, and in their vicinity were several colonies of a compound
stalked monad, resembling the Dinohryon of Ehrenberg. On another
occasion I found something like Poteriodendron on the Zoothamnium
which covered a Pinnotheres inhabiting an oyster; but the chain of par-
asitism did not stop here, for on the monad, as well as on the bell-animal,
there were rod-like bodies attached which were presumably bacteroid,
as has been supposed by Stein. Stalked monads are probably much
more common than has been supi)osed, which reminds me that I have
detected the occurrence of PMpidodendron splendidmn in the bogs and
ponds of New Jersey, a form which was described originally by Stein
from Bohemia. Minute as the stalked monads are, they must Uve on
still minuter beings, probably upon the Microbia, which in their turn
become an indirect source of supply of food for the grades next above
them, such as the free and fixed ciliate Protozoa, which feed upon monads
which have themselves fed on Bacteria or Bacillus-like organisms, and
so onward the matter of life takes its upward way.

The process of swallowing of many ciliate infusorians is as peculiar
as it is interesting. An opening, oftenest at one side of the body, is the
mouth, from which a short blind canal passes into the soft substance of
the animal's body. The rapid vibration of rows of cilia in the vicinity
of the mouth creates currents which set in in the direction of the throat,

■ BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 243

the lower end of whicli is dilated into a globular space by the force of
the currents produced by the cilia, in wliich the i^articles of food are
rotating- in the contained water. This space enlarges gradually until
eventually its connection with the throat is suddenly broken by a col-
lapse of the walls which join the globular space with the former. In
this way food-vesicle after food-vesicle is taken into the body of the
animalcule, from which the creature will abstract whatever is useful and
cast out near the mouth whatever is contained in the food-vesicles that
is indigestible. The writer has seen the process in a number of forms,
and it is not unusual to observe a dozen or more food-vesicles in the
body of a single protozoan. Many parasitic forms, however, are* mouth-
less, such as Opalina, Benedenia, Pyrsonympliaj Trichonym2)ha, &c., where
the nourishment is probably obtained from their hosts by transudation
through the body-walls. In other forms again comparatively large
objects are swallowed with apparent ease, judging from shells of other
protozoan tyi^es which are found within their bodies. Such a form I
encountered in a slightly brackish water-pool near New Point Comfort,
Virginia, during the summer of 1880. It was apparently a very large
species of Prorodon of an irregular cylindrical form which had in a
number of instances swallowed five or six large difflugians, Arcella vul-
garis, the shells of which remained within the animal to testify to the
nature of the food it had been devouring. Some other mode of swal-
lowing such large prey is probably practiced by this large ciliate, very
different from the method first described. In the same pool a very pe-
culiar form of hyi)Otrichous iufusorian was detected, which was clearly
very nearly allied to Chilodon cuctdlulus of Elirenberg, but the dorsal,
non-ciliated side of its body was not gently rounded, but flat with a
prominent crenate rim surrounding it -, from this peculiarity it may be
called Chilodon corona f vs.

The mode of swallowing their food adopted by the fresh-water rhizo-
pods has been elaborately described in a few instances by Professor
Leidy in his splendid monograph of this grouj), published by the Geo-
logical Survey of the Territories. Their food appears to be mainly veg-
etable, and consists, for the most part, of diatoms and desmids, though
a ciliated protozoan or rhizopod was occasionally met with in the body
of AviKha. The marine rhizopods appear to be herbivorous as well as
carnivorous, remains of both Protophytes and Protozoa having been de-
tected in their bodies. Vampyrella has been described as almost para-
sitic upon the clustered frustules of Gomplionema.

Some aberrant ciliated forms, like the Gastrotricha and Coleps, are
somewhat peculiar in their organization, and we know little of their
feeding habits.

The Suctoria or Tentaculifera, which are abundant in some places,
both in fresh and salt water, appear to be indiscriminately herbivorous,
as well as carnivorous. In fresh water I have met with them infesting
the back of the common water leech, Clepsine^ the species being appar-

r

244 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

ently Podophrya quadripartita. Of marine forms, I have seen but two
that I could regard as distinct from each other; the one, a vQry common
form, is the old and well-known Acineta tuberosa of Ehrenberg, with two
clusters of suckers. This form I have frequently seen with diatoms
which it had seized and from which it was abstracting nutriment. The
other form was much larger than the preceding and appears to be iden-
tical with the species described under the name Podophrya gemmipara
by Hertwig. It has the same robust stalk, with the same close tran.
verse annular markings, the same taper, and is similar in the form of
the tentacles, which are often irregularly beaded or swollen. I was en-
abled 4o observe in part its development, which is also similar to that
of the Helgoland species of the North Sea above mentioned. They were
found in great abundance on the surface of the fronds of Laminaria,
together with the Acineta tuberosa; not as abundantly, of course, as
the Zodthamnium, but in sufficient numbers to make them a very con-
siderable factor in the protozoan life found in the vicinit}' of New Point
Comfort.

The majority of the free j^rotozoa and many monads, such as Nocti-
luea, have scarcely been considered, but enough has been said, I think,
to give some idea of the actual importance of the minute animal and
vegetable life of the sea to make it clear that there is a most intimate
relation of dependence existing between the lowest and the inteniio-
diate forms of life. Why is it, for example, that we should find the
Copepoda so abundant among the Laminar ia along the sea-coast? Have
we not shown that on the fronds of these algae there exists, in most
instances, almost a forest of protozoan life, upon which these creatures
may be supposed to pasture"? We do not find the Laminaria itself
eaten. Again, the foraminiferal and radiolarian fauna of the high seas
appears to be, in great measure, a surface fauna, according to the evi-
dence of a number of investigators. This fact appears to have an im-
portant relation to the vast shoals of Cope])oda observed at the surface
of the sea by various naturalists and expeditions. It is not to be sup-
posed, however, from what has been said, that the Copepoda are the
only consumers of this vast array of individual protozoa. Cross- sec-
tions through the oyster, which the writer has prepared and mounted,
show the tests of various genera and sx)ecies of diatoms mixed among
the indigestible earthy matters and sediment which has been swallowed
along with the food. It is i^robable that the oyster swallows and digests
many of its own embryos, and not improbably many embryos of such
forms as Bryozoa and sponges, besides the diatoms, desmids, and proto-
zoa which make up the most of its food. Ordinarily the contents of
the stomach of the oyster are too much disorganized to learn much
about what it has recently swallowed, hence we are at a great loss to
know just exactly of what all of its food consists; just so with the
Copepoda — they themselves are doubtless eaten by other Crustacea,
these in turn by others. We saw that Doris and Eolis jDastured upon

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 245

the forests of fixed protozoa, just as Planorbis, Lymnaeus, and Physa
pasture upon the protozoa, algse, diatoms, and desmids, in fresh water.
The great abundance of Copcpoda and Amphipoda is, however, the best
evidence of the abundance of still smaller forms adapted to furnish
them with food. What multitudes of forms besides Copepoda must
largely subsist upon the protozoa and protophytes. Of such groups
we may name the Lamellibranchs, Pteropods, Worms, Bryozoa, Porifera,
and, doubtless, many Coelenterata. Some of these, notably the Lamel-
libranchs, could probably not exist were it not for the numerous proto-
zoa and j)rotophytes, upon which, from necessity, they are comiielled to
feed.

What is true of the fauna of the sea appears to be in an equally great
measure true of the faunae of fresh-water ponds, lakes, and streams.
Eecently I investigated some Daplmiadce which had been kept for some
time in an aquarium; to my surprise I did not find any recognizable re-
mains of animal food in the intestine. The latter were, however, entirely
filled with a sarcode-like material, doubtless in jiart a digestive secre-
tion, together with, what might have in ijart been animal food. The
vegetable food, consisting of diatoms, unicellular algte, spores of fungi,
fragments of oscillatorise, were so sparingly mixed with the intestinal
contents that they could not be regarded as contributing much to the
nutrition of the animal. The black or brown material, sometimes filling
the intestine of Entomostraca, I find to consist in great part of humus,
particles of quartz sand and earthy matters, which are of course indi-
gestible, being thrown out of the vent, as in Chirocephali, in the form
of cylindrical casts.

The most valuable contribution to our knowledge of the food of the
fresh-water fishes of the western United States has been made by Pro-
fessor S. A. Forbes, in Bulletins Xos. 2 and 3 of the Illinois State Labora-
tory of ISTatural History, for the years 1878 and 1880. With the most
painstaking care the results of a vast number of examinations are re-
corded. He finds that the Darters, Perches, Lahracidce, Centrarchoids
or sun-fishes, Scisenoids, Pike, Bony Gars, Olupeoids, C^'prinoids, Suck-
ers, Cat-fishes, and Amia, both the young and adults, consume large
numbers of small aquatic, and occasionallj'' small terrestrial organisms,
notably the smaller Arthropods. While many of the more voracious
species, both young and adult, feed on their immediate allies, the dietary
of the fishes of Illinois, according to this observer, includes mollusks,
worms, fresh-water Polyzoa, Hydrachnidse, insects of both mature and
larval forms; Crustacea, embracing Decapods, Tetradecapods, Amphi-
pods, Isopods, and Entomostraca of the groups Cladocera, Copepoda,
and Ostracoda; Eotifera, Protozoa, vegetable matter, and algse. In his
first paper he also gives a hst of the organisms found in the stomachs
and intestines of the Pirate perches, Gasterosteidci', Atherinidm^ Cyprin-
odontidce, Umbridce, Hyodontidcv, and Folyodontidce. Both are accom-
panied by elaborate comparative tables, and, in an economical sense,

246 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

are of tlie greatest practical importance in tlieir bearing upon fisli
culture.

It has, however, been known long ago that fishes consume large quan-
tities of small Crustacea, as will be seen from the following extract from
Dr. Baird's work:

" That the Entomostraca form a considerable portion of the food of
fishes has long been observed, and it is very probable that the quality
of some of our fresh-water fishes may in some degree depend upon the
abundance of this portion of their food. Dr. Parnell informs me that
the Lochlevin trout owes its superior sweetness and richness of taste to
its food, which consists of smaU shells and Entomostraca. The color
of the Lochlevin trout, he farther informed me, is redder than the com-
mon trout of other localities. When specimens of this fish have been
removed from the loch and conveyed to lakes in other places, the color
remains, but they very soon lose that peculiar delicacy of flavor which
distinguishes so remarkably the trout of Lochlevin. The experiment has
been repeatedly tried and always with the same results. The baustickle
[Gastrosteus trachurus] devours them with great rapidity, and I have
seen two or three individuals clear in a single night a large basin swarm-
ing with Daphnise and Cyclops, &c."

The writer would also refer to articles on the food of fishes in tlie Eeports
of the United States Fish Commissioner for 1872 and 1873 by Professors
Milner and Smith, and to papers by Widegren and Ljungman on the
copepodan food of herring. Also a paper by Dr. C. 0. Abbot in the same
report, for 1875 and 1876, on the winter habits of the fishes of the Del-
aware. Mobius has found i^eces of algse, besides shells, snails, crabs,
and fishes in the stomach of the cod. The writer has found the stomach of
the sheep's-head filled with the remains of the shells of mussels and large
quantities of the slender branches of the common bright red S])onge,Micro-
cionaproliferiim, bitten off in short fragments by the incisor-like teeth
of the fish, and with the red sponge sarcode partly digested out of its
skeleton. It is presumed that the sponge feeds upon protozoan life,
and on account of its peculiar dentary armature the sheep's-head is
singularly well fitted to pasture upon sponges aud thus indirectly ap-
propriate protozoa as nourishment. The same remark applies to the
molluscan food of this fish.

In young shad from Capehart's fishery, Albemarle Sound, said to have
been three weeks old, I found the remains of a number of adult Tipuli-
(ke, or crane-flies, in the intestine. This reminds me that in examining
the larvae of crane-flies some years ago, I was struck with the fine comb-
like fringes which garnish the edges of their wide oral appendages, and
which are so extended in life when the larva is in motion as to constitute
a sort of basket which opens downwards and forwards apparently to
strain out of the water the small organisms which constitute its food.
Here again we have young shad feeding upon an arthropod which has
passed its larval existeuce, feeding in great part upon protozoa. West-

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 247

wood, Introd., 11,511, I find, makes a similar observation in regard to
the larva? of the gnat or mosquito famJly. He says: "The head is dis-
tinct, rounded, and furnished with two inarticnlated antennte, and sev-
eral ciliated appendages, which serve them for obtaining nourishment
from their food."

The fixed Tunicates are probably as dependent upon the microscopic
life swimming about them in the water as the Lamellibranchs. The
Barnacles in like manner, immovably fixed during their adult existence,
kick their minute food into their mouths with their filiform legs, as
remarked by Huxley. In Pedicellina aniencana, abundant in Saint
Jerome's Creek, I have observed that there are rows of vibratory cilia
continuous with those of the tentacles around the edge of the lopho-
phore, which appear to lie in grooves, which blend on either side of the
excentrically placed mouth. In this manner the microscopic food of
this curious bryozoan is conveyed in ciliated grooves to the mouth
from all points of the oral disk. With these we may close our survey
of the modes in which the i)rotozoan grade of life is ai)propriated
the smaller Arthropods, Pteropods, Polyzoa, Annelids, and Tunicates,
but we must remember that upon these again the larger loims
subsist, which are either food for each other or for man. As we
pass in succession the larger forms, we may note the Lamellibran-
chiates, with this garniture of vibratory cilia covering the gills and
palps, and which carry the particles of food and sediment suspended
in the water used in respiration to the mouth to be swallowed. The
Clupeoids and Cetiorhinus with their branchical sieves are particularly
noteworthy for the perfection of the apparatus of prehension, but we
must not forget that the gill-rakers of all fishes, whenever developed to
any extent, probably subserve a similar function. Lastly, the right-
whales, with their closely ranged plates of baleen suspended from the
upper jaws, forming in reality a huge strainer or filter for the large
volumes of sea-water which pass through the mouth, and from which
the food of these marine giants is so simply obtained, will enable us in
a measure to comprehend the importance of the minute life of the world,
and its indirect but important economical relation to man. .

THE FOOD OF THE YOUNG SHAD.

The periods of yeUc-ahsorption.

In a previous paper by the writer on the retardation of the develoji-
ment of the shad, it was stated that the yelk-sack disappeared on the
fourth to the fifth day after the young fish had left the egg. Although
this statement is in a broad sense true, I find upon more accurate in-
vestigation that there is a small amount of yelk retained in the yelk-sack
for a much longer time. It appears in fact that there are really two
periods of absorption of the yelk which may be very sharply distinguished
from each other. The first extends from the time of hatching to the end

248 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

of the fourth or fifth day, according to temperature, during which time
the most of the yelk is absorbed. The small quantity which remains
after this time is not visible externally, being contained in a small fusiform
sack, all that remains of the true yelk-sack inclosed by the abdominal
walls, and causes little or no visible prominence on the under side of the
young fish. Viewed as a living transparent object from the side, we see
it in the young fish lying below the oesophageal portion of the alimentary
canal immediately in front of the very elongate liver, and behind the
.benrt, with the venous sinus of which it appears to communicate by a
narroAv duct formed of the anterior portion of the yelk hyboblast, which
formerly covered the distended yelk-sack. The appearances presented
by the living transparent objects are fully confirmed by the evidence
obtained from transverse sections of embryos from ten to twelve days
old. It appears that the yelk-sack of the California salmon probably
behaves in a somewhat similar manner as indicated by transverse sec-
tions. I even find this slight rudiment of the yelk-sack in shad embryos
fourteen to sixteen days old, but this seems to be about the period of
its disapi^earance. The second period of the absorption of the yelk
therefore extends in the shad over about twice that of the first, or about
ten days. The first period extends to the time when the yelk-sack is no
longer visible externally, the second from the time the remains of the
yelk-sack become inclosed in the abdomen until its final and complete
absorption. The function of the yelk-sack during the first period ap-
l)ears to be to build up the structures of the growing embryo; during
the second, not so much to build it uj) as to sustain it in vigorous health
until it can capture food to swallow and digest, so that it may no longer
be dependent upon the store of food inherited from its parent.

The airpearance of the teeth.

Minute conical teeth make their appearance on the lower jaws and
in the pharynx of the young shad about the second or third day after
hatching. Sections through the heads of embryos show that these
teeth are derived from the oral, hypoblastic lining of the mouth. There
are none on the upper jaw, there are four arranged symmetrically on
the lower jaw, or rather, Meckel's cartilage. In the throat, in the vicin-
ity of the fifth and last branchial arch, there are two rows of lower pha-
ryngeal teeth, the first of six, three on a side, the last of four, two on a
side. These teeth are of the same form and size as those on the jaws.

The age at which it begins to talcefood.

Although iDeristaltic contractions of the walls of the intestine of
young shad may be observed soon after hatching, I have never ob-
served food in the alimentary canal until ten or twelve days after the
young fish had left the Qgg. At about the beginning of the second
week considerable may be seen in living specimens. But the intes-

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 249

tine is often not yet very densely packed with food even at this
period. At the age of three weeks an abundance of food is found
in the intestine, that portion which becomes the stomach and which
extends from the posterior extremity of the liver to near the vent
being greatly distended with aliment. Upon investigating the nature
of this food material we learn that it consists almost entirely of very
small crustaceans, in reality for the most part of the very youngest
Bcqjhniadw and Lynceiflcv; only once did I find what I thought might
be very small OstraGoda or Cypridw. In some instances the undevel-
oped larvai of Daphniw were noticed. In a few cases green cellules
were observed in the intestines of shad larvse resembling Protococcus,
but as this material appeared to be accidental, it is probably not an im-
portant element of shad food. In the young fishes the dark, indigesti-
ble remains of the food of the Daplinice always remained, together with
the hard chitinous parts, as long-curved cylindrical casts which pre-
served the shape of the intestines of the crustaceans. In one young
shad, twenty-two days old from the time of impregnation, measuring
14 millimeters in length, I estimated from a series of sections through
the specimen that it must have consumed over a hundred minute crus-
taceans.

The oldest specimens of artificially reared shad which came into my
hands were some that had been overlooked in some of the hatching
apparatus at Dr. Gapehart's fishery in North Carolina, where they re-
mained for three weeks after hatching. In that time they had grown
to a length of 23 millimeters, or almost one inch. The air-bladder was
more developed and the stomach was more decidedly differentiated
than in any previous stage. In the intestines of these I found, beside
black, earthy, and vegetable indigestible matter, the remains of the chit-
inous coverings of small larv^al Diptera, and the remains of a very
small adult crane-fly, besides Entomostraca allied to Lyneeus. In these
specimens the dorsal fin had the rays developed, the continuous median
larval natatory folds having by this time disappeared.

The mode in which the young fish capture their Entomostracan prey
may be guessed from their oral armature. Most fish larvos appear to be
provided with small, conical, somewhat backwardly recurved, teeth on
the jaws. Rathke, in 1833, described the peculiar hooked teeth on the
lower jaw of the larvEe of the viviparous blenny, and Forbes has ob-
served minute teeth on the lower jaw of the young Coregonus albus. I
have also met with similar teeth on the lower jaw of the larval Span-
ish mackerel.

THE FOOD OF THE ADULT SHAD.

The mouth of the adult shad, as is well known, is practically tooth-
less, and in the throat there are no functionally active teeth, as in the
larvai, so that the latter, in reality, have a relatively much better de-
veloped dentary system than their parents. The adult, moreover, prob-

250 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

ably feeds in the same way as tlie generality of the Clupeoids, that is to
say, by swimming along with the mouth held o\)en, as I have frequently
observed is the habit of the menhaden in its native element. In this
way the water which passes through the branchial filter is deprived of
the small animals which are too large to pass through its meshes and
be swallowed.

It is a common remark of the fisherman that it is seldom that one
finds food in the stomach of the adult shad in freshwater; indeed,
from personal observation, it is rare or exceptional. The writer has
heard many fishermen express their belief, based on this singular fact,
that this fish did not feed at all in fresh water . during the spawning
season. With this unreasonable oi)inion I cannot coincide, and I have
no doubt but that the shad feeds in fresh water, as well as in the sea,
upon such small animals as are liable to be captured by its prehensile
apparatus. To show that it does probably capture large numbers of
small Crustacea in fresh water, the following observation will show: A
spawning female, captured about twenty miles from Washington, down
the Potomac, when the stomach was opened, was found to contain about
a tablespoonful of Copepoda, apparently a Cyclops, and very similar to
the common fresh-water species. This is the only instance in which I
found a large amount of food which appeared to have been recently
captured, since the carapaces and joints of the antennae and body were
still hanging together, with the soft parts partially intact, showing that
they had probably been recently swallowed and but partially digested.
Upon examining the intestine, however, I invariably found the remains
of Copepoda imbedded in the intestinal mucus, the most conspicuous
and constant evidence of which was the presence of the hard chitinous
jaws (ff these creatures. This was the invariable rule even where there
was no food discernible in the stomach. Besides the remains of Cope-
poda observed, there were almost invariably present in the intestine
green cells, apparently of algous origin; occasionally there were also
seen the remains of large crustaceans, possibly shrimps or amphipods,
but these were so mutilated and disorganized that the evidence of their
presence is founded only upon the occurrence of single joints or frag-
ments. The tests of rotifers and the shells of diatoms of both discoidal
and naviculoid forms were also observed.

Upon the foregoing facts the writer bases his conclusion that the
shad does feed in fresh water.

If it were of any advantage, we might speculate ujjon the relations
subsisting between the smaller and larger aquatic and marine forms of
life, but perhaps enough has been said to show that there is an exten-
sive basis of fact to support what is imj)lied by the title of this paper.
The manifold adaptations and contrivances by which food is obtained
by organisms which prey upon others, and how the tendency to accu-
mulate the vast amount of the "physical basis of life," represented by
the existing Protozoa and Protophytes is practically realized by the

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 251

Lordes of Entomostraca and other small animals with which both fresh
and salt waters teem ; how these again are accumnlated in apprecia-
ble qnantities so as to furnish an important source of food is shown by
the immense numbers, amounting to many thousands, which may be
taken from the stomach of a single fish. In the case where the large
quantity of Copepoda was obtained from the stomach there were proba-
bly more than 100,000 individuals of these crustaceans, which would
average a fifteenth of an inch long and a fiftieth of an inch wide. This
fact will serve to show how fine the meshes of the branchial sieve must
be to prevent the prey of the shad from escaping from this remarkable
collecting apparatus. The soft i^arts, too, of the individual crustaceans
were so well preserved that one could distinguish the pigment of the
eyes, the muscles, and intestine with its contents, while the vast num-
ber of their eggs mixed amongst their bodies testified to the multitudes
ef females which had been swallowed. These facts would appear to in-
dicate most positively that the fish had captured its food quite recently
and after it had reached quite fresh water.

FI8HIIVQ AND FISH-CUI^TURE IN Fr.ORII>A.

By F. B. FISHER.

[Letter to Prof. S. F. Baird.]

Mr. Way turned over your letter to me as I am in the fish business
and am in favor of raising fish and stocking rivers. Florida has the
finest lakes and rivers for this purpose. This country is filling up
with first-class people, who will appreciate this kind of work. I have
fished on this river for ten years, and I have fished on all rivers in the
United States and coast. Eipe roe shad can be had at this jjlace from
five hundred to one thousand every twenty-four hours, if we have an
early season. There are small streams of clear water which are cold
branches that would answer spendidly for hatching purposes. When
I first came here I could pick up shad all along the lake shores where
the alligators run them out. The people have been shooting the alli-
gators ; thousands have been killed this season, and this gives the fish a
better chance. The garfish and catfish are very destructive to all other
kinds of large fish and small. Trout or bass destroyed large quantities of
small shad, and my object is to destroy catfish and garfish and by mak-
ing guano of them. Gizzard shad, or mud shad, are not good except for
guano. I am in favor of catching fish as long as they can be put to a good
use; I don't believe in wasting good fish. I have spent hours stripping
shad while fishing here. This is my home, and I will be at your ser\ice at
any time in stocking these lakes or rivers. Any information I can givein
regard to fish, I will be pleased to communicate.

Sanfoed, Fla., September 12, 1881.

252 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION,

CHAIVOES IN TUB FISHKRIE.^ OF THE CARFAX LAKES DURIXO THE

DECADE, lSrO-lS80.

By CHAS. M\ SMILEY.

A somewhat wide-spread impression exists in tlie lake region that
the fisheries of the Great Lakes are decreasing. That the number of
pounds of fish annually caught is less than formerly is not true, and
yet this instinctive impression is doubtless correct if formulated differ-
ently. That the resources are diminishing and liable to fail us is true.

From the statements of Mr. J. W. Milner, who visited the fisheries in
1871, and whose report was published by the United States Fish Com-
mission, and by comparison with the investigation made in 1879 by
Mr. Ludwig Kumlein under the auspices of the Fish Commission and
Tenth Census, the following facts appear:

I. The total number of pounds of fish obtained from the Great Lakes
in 1879 was equal to or greater than the yield of any years in the first
part of the decade.

II. The apparatus for capture has increased in effectiveness enor-
mously, probably 500 per cent. The increased effectiveness was produced
by the introduction of finer meshes in nets, the addition of steam-tugs,
the increase of i)ounds, and very great increase in the number of gill-nets
in use. The number of fishermen also increased.

III. The average size of the whitefish and trout taken greatly dimin-
ished during the decade.

IV. A considerable number of valuable fishing places became seriously
or wholly exhausted. ISTew places were sought out and the supply thus
kept up.

Y. From these few facts the following conclusion is drawn: The per-
fection which the apparatus has attained, the diminution in the size
of the fish taken, the exhaustion of numerous localities, and the fact that
fishing is pressed under these circumstances enough to keep up the
maximum supply, indicate that, in the natural order of events, remark-
able diminution if not complete coUapse is to be anticipated in the
coming decade.

VI. The natural order of events may be averted by regulation of the
size of meshes, preventing the pollution of the waters, and by artificial
propagation.

In support of the foregoing statements the following details are sub-
mitted :

I. The supply maintained. — In his report for 1872 Mr. Milner gave a
table of "the number of pounds of lake fish received by first handlers,"
but he stated that his figures for Sandusky, Milwaukee, Green Bay, and
Mackinaw were incomplete. He then adds: "The sum total of this
incomplete record is 32,250,000 pounds of fish." Mr. Kumlein's figures

BUi-LETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 253

for 1879 foot up 68,742,000 pounds. That the total supply was not
very much larger in 1879 than in 1872 is the universal opinion. It is
also likely that the completion of the figures for 1872 would make a
total of at least 50,000,000 pounds. In this period, the trade of Buffalo,
Milwaukee, an<l some other places fell off, but was compensated by the
increase of trade in Chicago. This decline at Buffalo from 1872 to 1879
Mr. Kumlein i)laces at from 6,374,100 pounds to 4,001,000 pounds. It is
imxwssible to state the exact decline at Milwaukee, but one house re-
ports a decrease from 14,000 half-barrels to 2,058 half- barrels; another
house sold 8,000 half-barrels in 1871, 7,000 in 1872, and but 1,908 in 1879.
A third firm handled 6,623 half-barrels in 1872, and 10,397 in 1873,
but only 2,003 half-barrels in 1879. The only other wholesale dealer
gave no comparative figures.

Poimds.

In 1872 Mr. Milner put the transactions in Chicago at 7, 401, 102

In 1875 the total is given by a Chicago firm at 11, 500, 000

In 1876 the total is given by this same firm at 12, 240, 000

In 1877 the total is given by this same firm at 14, 000, 000

In 1879 Mr. Kumlein put the Chicago trade at 17, 247, 570

II. Maximum effectiveness of fishing. — The summaries of apparatus
used in Lake Michigan as given by Mr. Milner in 1872 and by Mr. Kum-
lein in 1879 compare as follows :

For 1871. For 1879.

Pound-nets 281 476

Gill-nets 450 24, 599

Sail- vessels and boats 689 612

Steam-tugs 4 30

In their report the Wisconsin commissioners say : " The number an
variety of nets used for fishing are appalling, and their destruction
character, supplemented by the spear, is rapidly exterminating the
whitefish and salmon, trout in Lake Michigan, Green Bay, and in many
of the larger inland lakes. "

In 1860 Mr. Kalmbach, who at present is a dealer in Green Bay, began
fishing with the pound-net in Bay de IS^oquet ; pound-nets were at that
time a new institution in these waters, and in fact his was one of the
first trials. He employed two pound-nets, one 18, the other 20 feet deep
and 25 by 30 feet square. From the 10th of October to the 25th of
November he took from these nets and salted 1,750 half-barrels, or
175,000 pounds, of No. Iwhite fish, and could he have secured assistance,
salt, packages, &c., he couldhave more than doubled this amount. Very
few fish were smaller than No. 1. Of late years the pound-nets have
contained smaller and smaller meshes.

The Wisconsin commissioners, in their report for 1874, state: "AtEacine
there are four boats in constant use putting out and taking up not less
than twenty-five miles of gill-nets. We are told by Mr. Jacob Schenken-
barger, one of our oldest and most intelligent fishermen, that with an

254 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

equal number of nets only one-fourth as many fish are caught now as
were taken four years ago. He further says : ' Late in October m 1870 1
took with a set of thirty nets, at one time, 1,980 pounds of dressed trout.
Four years ago it was common to take from 1,000 to 1,500 pounds of
fish at each trip. Now we never go over 500, and not unfrequently go
less than 200 pounds. The lake is filled with nets and the fish can hardly
escape.' "

In the report of 1875 the Wisconsin commissioners say: "At Milwau-
kee there are four steam smacks and two sailing smacks engaged in fish-
ing. These six smacks have a total of sixty-five miles of nets. Each
steam-smack costs about $7,000. The capital invested at that place is
not far from $75,000. Kenosha employs four smacks, with about thirty
miles of nets, and the catch is about equal to Racine. In these places,
Kenosha, Eacine, and Milwaukee, there is a total of one hundred and
twenty-five miles of gill-nets used. There is a total of nets used in the
waters of Lake Michigan to extend from one end of the lake to the other.
During the year 1875 there has been great comi)laint of scarcity of fish,
and there has been a falling off of at least one-fourth ; so that it is evi-
dent to all that the waters of Lake Michigan are being gradually depleted
of fish."

III. Size of fish diminished. — In their report for 1875 the Wisconsin
commissioners say: "In former days the fishermen used nets of a larger
mesh and took whitefish that weighed from 8 to 14 j)Ounds each, the
latter figures being the largest known to have been caught. Now they
have to use smaller-meshed nets and take smaller fish, the larger ones
being almost unknown now."

From Green Bay, Mr. Kumlein reported, "Of late years pound nets
with small meshes have been largely employed, and thereby millions of
young whitefish have been destroyed." •

Writing from Port Clinton, Mr. Kumlein says : "In Mr. Mckels' opinion
the mesh is now rarely one-half the size it was ten years ago. The fisher-
men and dealers generally pronounce the decrease, especially of white-
fish, very great indeed. However, Mr. Mathews, of Port Clinton, thinks
there are just as many whitefish as ever, and as many caught; but, being
distributed among more fishermen, they individually take less than form-
erly. Collectively, the catch is pretty much the same as it was ten
years ago, or ever was, in his opinion."

From Menominee, Wis., Mr. Kumlein writes : " The number of white-
fish to a half-barrel is yearly growing greater. Sixty has been thought
a good number ; now ninety is common. I am informed by Cai^t. Thos.
Larseu, of Menominee, that he has seen a half-barrel filled with twelve
no longer ago than 1874. It is the opinion of fishermen north of Menom-
inee that the whitefish increased in numbers on their shore till 1876,
when the yield rapidly fell off till the present date ; it is estimated to
have fallen off two-thirds since 1875."

At Washington Island, in 1878, there were over 5,000 barrels, equal to
fuUy 7,500,000, young whitefish thrown away, being too small for market.

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 255

Writing' from Greeu Bay, Wis., Mr. L. Kumlein says: "During- the
autumn of 1878 and the spring- of 1879 a prominent dealer at this point
collected from fishermen along- the shore of the bay large quantities of
whitefish, which he purchased already packed and salted in half -barrels ;
they were bought for No. 1 fish, but in repacking he found some of the
packages to contain as many as 600 fish, and of course none were large
enough for l^o. 1. There were a very few No. 2, and the lot was even
barely salable as No. 3. Many were found that did not measure 3 inches
dressed."

IV. Depletion and search for new fisheries. — Of the eastern shore of
Green Bay, Mr. Kumlein says : " The once famous fisheries of '■ the door'
around Washington and Saint Martin's Islands, Little Sturgeon Bay, and
Chambers Island are no more. On the grounds where once forty staunch
mackinaws and five steam tugs with about 4,000 gill-nets brought to
their owners in the neighborhood of $100,000 a year, the fishing is now
carried on bj- a few suiJerannuated Indians and the gulls. The same
grounds that in 1873 yielded $4,000 in four months from two pound
nets (Chambers Island), this year have yielded not quite $400 worth, and
that with nets twice as large. The fishing grounds about ' the door ' were
to the north and west of Washington Island and south and west of Saint
Martin's, extending out in either direction for eight miles and between
the two islands the whole distance. These grounds were probably the
greatest whitefish spawning grounds in existence prior to 1868. Now
they are nearly abandoned, l)oth by fish and fishermen. From May 1 to
August 15, 1873, Mr. Blakefield, now of the firm of Blakefield «& Minor,
of Fish Creek, sold of fresh fish, from two small pound nets set oft" Cham-
bers Island, $4,175.91 worth. This year on the same grounds, with nets
double the size, and in twice the length of time, the product has been a
trifie less than $400. On the same grounds, where one boat with two
men sold from their gill-nets $9,000 worth offish in one year, there is no
fishing at all now."

Mr. Windross, of Greeu Bay, estimates that at Oak Orchard and Pen-
saukee the catch of whitefish has fallen of 90 per cent, since 1869. He
lays the decrease, in a great measure, to the sawdust i^ollutiug the
spawning beds, and in corroboration of his statement cites the follow-
ing, which he himself has witnessed : In 1845, the whitefish came up the
Oconto Eiver as far as the falls, 20 miles, to spawn. With a small seine
he took 1,200 half-barrels and could have taken a great many more if
he could have used them. This was only at one locality, and thej^ en-
tered all the weirs in the same manner. Now the river bottoms are one
mass of sawdust, and it also extends far out into the bay so that tlie
sheltered shoals are so covered that the fish desert them. Sawdust
bottom extends out two miles from shore about the mouth of the rivers.
Mr. Windross thinks the whitefish spawn more around the island and
on the east shore; very few spawning on the shore from Suamico to
Peshtigo Point.

256 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

Of the tributaries of Green Bay near Menominee Mr. Kumlein writes :
"Prom fifteen to thirty years ago the most profitable fishing grounds
were in the Menominee Eiver near its mouth. Here racks were con-
structed which caught the fish as they came down from spawning. On
such racks as high as GOO barrels of whitefish have been taken in one
autumn on a single rack."

Mr. Eveland says that not a whitefish lias been caught in the river
for the past twelve years. As soon as the sawdust began polluting the
river the whitefish abandoned it. It was no unusual occurrence to take
600 barrels* of whitefish in a season twenty years ago, on one of the
Menominee Eiver racks.

" Duluth, Minn., does not seem to have been much of a fishing point
until recently. Now the industry is assuming much greater propor-
tions than in 1879. The town itself is only a few years old." — (Statement
of Ludwig Kumlein, June, 1880.)

Of Bayfield, Wis., Mr. Kumlein says : " The total number of men
employed in 1879 was 130. In 1880 there were over 200. Pounds have
been fished here for about twelve years. We could not learn that the
decrease had been at all alarming. Ashland Bay (Chequamegan Bay)
seems to have suffered the most, it is thought because pound nets
have been set there the longest. When a certain locality begins to show
signs of giving out, a new one is found, and a rest of a few years is said
in some cases to have restored the depleted waters. The present year
(1880) the fishing is said to be better than ever before, but it must be
remembered that the facilities for capture are better, the men more ex-
perienced, and the grounds better known. There is also more twine in
use than ever before."

August 30, 1880, Messrs. W. W. Paddock & Co., of Ashland, Wis.,
who own over 1,200 gill-nets, 23 pound-nets, and 7 seines, write: "There
seems to be only one-third of the whitefish caught near Ashland that
there formerly was."

Of the fisheries of Lake Superior from Keweenaw Point to Huron
Bay, where the catch in 1879 was 8,000 barrels, mostly whitefish and
trout, Mr. Kumlein writes: "Whitefish are said to have decreased con-
siderably in fifteen years, especially in Keweenaw Bay."

Mr. Kumlein, writing from Marquette of the fisheries extending 30
miles east and west of that place, says: " Fifteen to twenty years ago
the fishing was done almost entirely with hooks for trout and only with
gill-nets for whitefish. Pounds were not used till 1869. There is sup-
posed to have been a gradual decrease, especially among the whitefish
and trout. This is stoutly denied by some, who say the fish have merely
moved to grounds inaccessible to the fishermen, or not yet discovered
by them."

Mr. Kumlein says of Whitefish Point: "This fishery was purchased
in 1870 by Jones & Trevalle, of Buffalo, jSTew York, who employ a steam-
tug, 2 Mackinaw boats, 2 pound-nets, 2 seines, and 36 box gill-nets.
Of late the fishing has not been so profitable as it was five or six years

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 257

ago. In 1879 there were but 350 half-barrels salted, while in 1874 there
were 2,300. They rake only whitefish and trout. In the last three
years the catch has been too poor to pay expenses."

West coast of Lal-e 2Iichigan. — Mr. Kirtland, of Jacksonport, Door
County, says that in his neighborhood the amount of whitefish has fal-
len off fully one-third in seven years. Xo fresh fish at all is sold here
now, as it was three years ago, but it is all salted and disposed of to
coasters.

Mr. Marion, of Oostburgh, says that as many fish were caught the last
three years as usual, but the number of nets have greatly increased, so
that the decrease of each man's catch is thought by some to be fully
one-half in 10 years.

At Pentwater, once such a famous ground, there are at present but
two boats. In 1874 there were five; 10 years ago, seven; and good
fishing; now it is an almost abandoned locality.

Concerning the Mackinaw fisheries, the figures are quite reliable. In
1874, Judge G. C. Ketchum ascertained the product of that year to be;
equal to 3,542,840 pounds fresh, and in 1879 Mr. Kumlein shows the
product to be equal to 3,259,896 pounds fresh, or a decrease of 282,944
pounds, or 8 per cent., in five years.

The other laJces. — While visiting Lake Huron, Mr. Kumlein wrote:
"It is estimated by Mr. Case that 10 years ago with the same number
of nets now used, three times the amount of fish would have been caught.
He used to put up 1,200 barrels in a year. Xow he seldom gets over
30 tons."

Writing from Erie, Pa., Mr. Kumlein says: "Many years ago Barce-
lona was the most important fishing point on Lake Erie, but at the pre-
sent time it amounts to but little. Dunkirk was also for a long time
famous, but very little is done there now. Erie, on the other hand, is.
improving."

In 1872 Mr. Miiner wrote of Sodus Point: "There are three boats
here fishing pound nets." In 1879, Mr. Kumlein says, "Xow there are
none."

In 1872 Mr. Miiner said: " Poultney ville, X. Y., has been a resort for
Canadian fishermen for years. Fourteen or fifteen years ago they came
over in numbers, and they came almost every year." In 1879 Mr. Kum-
lein said, " Xow there are none at all."

From Sacket's Harbor, Mr. Kumlein writes: "Clark & Eobbins, of
Jacket's Harbor, say, that in 1879 they salted 2,447 half-barrels ciscoes^.
while in 1879 they got only 100. They think such fish as pike, black bass,,
trout, »S:c., have increased since the alewives came, and that the whitefish..
and ciscoes have greatly decreased."

From Lorain County, Ohio, Mr. Kumlein writes: "The general im-
pression seems to be that the decrease among the whitefish for ten years
has been very great. Ten years ago there were not more than half as
many nets as now, yet a much greater quantity of fish was taken. "
Bull. U. S. P. C, 81 17 April 28, 1 88S.

258 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION,

Speaking of the vicinity of Green Bay Mr. Kumlein says : '• Five years
ago Chambers Island snpported nine pound nets, doing a good business.
Now there are but two, and those did not pay expenses the last year.
In 1873, Mr. Minor alone sold to two firms, one in Chicago and one in
Buffalo, $19,571.95 worth of salt fish, and $700 worth of fresh fish. At
the same time a Cleveland firm on Washington Island did more than
double this business. At the present time none at all are shipj)ed from
these same grounds which once yielded such a revenue. Prior to 1873,
the average shipments per week from May to July was 700 half-barrels,
worth on an average $4. About 1874 the greatest decline was appre-
ciable, and then the fishing suddenly dropped off entirely."

"From 1870 to 1873 between 60 and 100 tons were shipped from Fish
Creek, and all taken within a radius of ten miles. These were worth four
cents a pound to the fishermen on the ice. "

V. The crisis. — If the facts heretofore presented establish the allega-
tion that (1) the number of pounds offish caught has been maintained,
but (2) by enormously increased and effective facilities, (3) that large
fish are seldom caught and that the small ones have not been allowed
to survive, so that (4) already many fishing places have entirely failed
up, it cannot be denied that a crisis has been reached such as seriously
to alarm all who are interested in these lake fisheries.

VI. The remedy. — The great efficiency of api^aratus which has been
reached will remain. We do not retrograde. Men will still use the
powerful appliances which they have discovered. But it is possible for
the neighboring States to regulate by law the size of the mesh and some
other minor details. This some of the Std,tes have attempted, and no
doubt others will imitate them. It is also greatly in the interest of
certain localities to prevent the x^oUution of their waters with sawdust,
decayed lumber, ofifal, &c.

Artificial jiropagation has already been attempted on a limited scale
and the methods pretty well worked out. It is believed that if carried
on extensively it may become a very powerful factor in the remedy de-
:sired.

EXTKAORDINARV FLOODS IIV THE POTOITIAC RIVER.

By GEO. R. MARQUETTE.

[Extract fiom letter to Prof. S. F. Baird.]

To the best of my knowledge the heights of rivers at this point in the
flood of 1870 were 28 feet 6 inches above low-water mark : this was on
the 30th day of September. In the flood of 1877 the greatest height
was 29 feet 9 inches above low- water mark; this was on the 25th day
of November. This flood was the highest ever known in this town.

Harper's Ferry, W. Ya.,

January, 17, 1882.

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 259

COD AND HALIBUT FISHERIES NEAR THE SHlJiniAOIIV ISLANDS.*

By DR. KRAUSE.

[From "Deutsche Geographiscbe Blatter, " Vol. IT, part 4, Bremen, 18S1, pp. 267-269.]

You may imagiue bow greatly we regretted the fact that we could
not spend the whole of July iu Behring Strait, as we thereby lost a great
deal, especially with regard to botauy aud ornithology. All we could
do duriog this part of our voyage hardly compensated us for this loss,
although an opportunity was offered to make many interesting observa-
tions. Several times, when the vessel was becalmed near the coast, we
emi)loyed our leisure in cod-fishing. The most favorable result we ob-
tained in the neighborhood of the UnimaJc Passage, where on the 25th
July, we caught 80 codfish — related to or identical with the European
Gadus jnorrhua {Eabljaii), Gadus macroceplialus Til. — and 3 halibut
(lieilhutten). The delicate fiesh of these fish offered a welcome variety
in the monotony of our daily fare of salt meat. The captain, however,
did not appear to be altogether satisfied with the result of our fishing ;
as last year he had, while becalmed in the Unimah Passage, caught
several hundred codfish, which not only supplied his entire crew with
fresh meat for ten days, but which also enabled him to salt down several
barrels full of fish for future use. The largest halibut caught by him
weighed 30 pounds; but occasionally some are caught weighing 300
pounds and more. The codfish as a general rule exceed in size our
." Kahljau. " The weight of a medium sized cod (after the intestines have
been removed) is about 9 i^ounds. The best fishing grounds are in the
neighborhood of the 81i umagin Islands, where many thousands of fish are
annualy caught on a sand-bank about 10 miles from the coast. Three firms
in San Francisco send for this purpose small vessels, of about 120 tons,
both to the Shumagin Islands and to the Sea of Ochotsl<.\ Last year a
vessel was also sent to Sitlca, x)rincipally to fish for halibut, and report-
ed very good fishing grounds near that place.

The full cargo of a vessel of 120 tons is 75,000 fish, which are packed
in boxes weighing 30 pounds each. This cargo is generally made up in
three months. About 12 fishermen are exclusively occupied in fishing,
whilst 5 boys tend to the cleaning and salting, for which they receive
monthly wages. The fishermen do not receive fixed wages, but $25 for
every thousand fish. The captain of the vessel, who has to keep an
account of the number of fish brought in by the fishermen, is paid by a

* '■'Kahljau undHpMhuttenfangheidenSchumafjinlnseln" — [trauslated from the German
by Herman Jacobson].

t Compare M. Lixdeman: ^^Die See fischereien," supplement to No. 60 of " Peter-
7nann's Alittheiluitfjen," pp. 59 & 60, aud M. LiNDEMAX: " Amtlichc Berichte ubcr die
Berliner Fischerci-Ausstellung" (Official Report ou the Berlin Fishery Exposition), II,
"Scefischerei,"]). 184.

260 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

certaiu share of the tvotal yiekl, jj^eneraliy $9 to $10 i»er thous:atKl fish.
The boats of the fishermen, 14 feet long and 3| feet broad, can, in fa-
vorable weather, carry about 320 fish each. By sudden storms the fish-
erman risks the loss of his whole cargo, as the only way to save himself
is to allow the boat to upset and drop the entire cargo in the water.
The light boat will of itself again stand upright.

A skilled fisherman can catch 1,000 fish a day. He stands erectin his
little boat, on both sides of which he casts a line furnished with a lead and
with two hooks. If fish are very plentiful, he is kept busy all the time,
hauling iu alternately the right and left line, taking the fish off the hooks,
stunning them either by a blow on the head or by violently throwing
them against a piece of wood, and baiting liis hook afresh. The lines,
which have the thickness of a quill, are invariably let down to the l^ot-
tom, and thereupon hauled in 1 fathom. As, from our vessel, we fished
at a depth of nO to 70 fathoms, the hauling in of the lines was no easy
work, especially if we take into consideration that we were not properly
equipped for this kind of work. In order to protect their hands, the
fishermen use so-called ''nippers" — rings made of good wool, which are
drawn over the hand, and secure the lines merely by friction.

For want of better bait, we used pieces of salt bacon ; as soon, however,
as a fish had been caught, portions of it were cut out and used as bait
The fishermen prefer to use as bait the fresh red flesh of the salmon, or
the glaring white flesh of the cuttle-fish, which is said to attract the cod
more than any other bait. Even pieces of fish taken from the stomach
of a cuttle-fish did excellent ser^fice as bait.

The average value of a pound of salt cod in San Francisco (fresh cod
is not brought into the market there) is 10 cents. We did not allow the
opportunity to pass of enjoying some good fishing. It is true that our
drag-net apparatus was not well suited to great depths, but we neverthe-
less succeeded in bringing up from the bottom considerable booty, the
floating net moreover supplying us with a good many objects of interest
from the surface-water, particularly in the line of Medusse.

A PROPOSED PO.'VD FOR REARING STRIPED BASS (ROCCUS EIIVE-

ATUS) IN DELAWARE BAY.

By E. R. ]VOR]\V.

[From a letter to Prof. S. F. Baird.J

I send you by mail an eel-skin, not on account of its size, but on ac-
count of its color. The lower part, or tail part, was a shiny black when
alive, shading to a dull black towards the head, and a dark lead color
on the belly. We caught two of these in December after other eels had
buried ; the other one was a fourth larger than this one. All eels that
we have ever seen here have been either green or pale yellow on the
back and white on the belly. Is this a distinct species or a sea variety?

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 261

I am sorry tliat you do not feel justified in making the appropriation
of about $250 to complete the pond I ^Yrote about a year ago for the
jiropagation of the striped bass in Delaware Bay.

I think my experiment last spring fally showed the feasibility of doing
it. Having had a large female in captivity for 14 days, in M'hich time it
had nearly finished spawning, and that under very unfavorable circum-
stances, as it had no fresh water in the pond in all that time, and for the
last three days the water was very warm.

I think if it is not attended to this spring the opportunity will be lost
here. My fishermen have not made any money fishing for these fish the
last three years, and this season will not fish as large a seine as usual
expecting to fish pound-nets, in part, which will not be likely to take these
large fish. After the bass fishing they expect to go into the sturgeon
fishing, which has become very important here.

This pond is embanked on three sides, and next the bay is open, but
it requires an extra tide to put water in the pond. It covers an area of
over one-half acre; portions of it are from 4 to G feet deep, and other
portions shoal. We now use it for getting ice. It should be deepened
in the shoal places and have a trunk leading to the baj' to admit fresh
water every high tide and keep a uniform depth. It would also, on por-
tions of the bay front, require a dry stone wall to keep the fish from escap-
ing at extra high tides. I don't think the whole expenditure would be
over $250, and if we were to put in from 30 to 40 fish, male and female,
they would be sufficient to hatch many millions of young fry. And I
think the hatching could all be done between the 25th of April and 20th of
May. There would be plenty of time to get it ready in March, after we
are done with it for ice, as we are able to drain the water from it when
we wish to do so.

Odessa, Del., January 9, 1882.

SHAD FISHEBIE!!) OF THE SIlJiiQ VEHANIVA RIVFR FIFTV-SIX

VEARS AOO.

By H. WILI.IS.

[From a letter to Prof. S. F. Baird.]

A brief account of the shad fisheries of the Susquehanna Eiyer fifty-
six years ago may be somewhat interesting, as you have charge of so
large a government enteri)rise in fish-culture.

In the spring of 1827 Thomas Stump owned and operated the largest
shad fishery in the United States, immediately below the railroad bridge
on the opposite side from Havre de Grace. At the mouth of the river
his seine was laid across the river and down for miles along the shore
below the tillage of Havre de Grace. A violent wind commenced, which
put a stop for four days and nights to any further action with the seine,

262 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FLSH COMMISSION.

the wind blowing constantly down the river, and no shad could get past
the seine. The wind at one o'clock on the fourth night changed and
blew directly up the river, and by daylight the outer end of the seine
had reached the windlass, one and a half miles from the railroad bridge.
At eight o'clock one hundred wagons and carts that had congregated
from Lancaster and Chester Counties were loading shad at $-4 per hun-
dred. Herring, rock, and other tish, were thrown in without charge.
Mr. Stump sent word for miles around in Cecil County to farmers to get
herring to manure thek" lands. It took three and one-half days to get
the seine inshore ; hundreds of wagon and cart loads of fish were put
on lands as fertilizers from that one haul. Shad are not caught at this shore
at the j)resent. Mr. John Stump now lives on the property", and, x)erhaps,
can give a more detailed history of that wonderful catch of fish. If my
memory serves me right, Mr. Stump, computing the wagon and cart-loads,
made th£i amount, in round numbers, 15,000,000 caught at that one haul.
At that time nearly every family put down one to three hundred shad
annually in Chester, Lancaster, York, and Dauphin Counties before dams
were made. Shad were caught 200 miles up the Susquehanna Kiver,
and if proper fish ways were made and government would establish hatch-
eries on this river, and put a heavy fine on all fish-baskets, during the
fall, when young shad return to the ocean, millions more shad might
be taken, and every family have the benefit of fresh and salt shad, even
as they did half a century ago.
Permit me to show what I think of the profits of shad culture :

1,000 shad from the hatchery put into the river cannot cost over
$5. Suppose 33 per cent, return, then 333 shad, at 20 cents,
each, would be $60 GO

Add four years' interest on $5, at 0 per cent G 20

The net profit would be 60 40

Even if only one-fourth returned, the benefit to the masses may become
incalculable in the way of food. All animals produced on land require
vast outlays, while the i)roduction of fish is a mere moiety. IsTature
provides the element and food for fish without cost, and when man will
truly see his interest and comfort and give his influence in behalf of
the X)roduction of fish by artificial culture, which was wholly unknown
in our country forty years ago, he will, as in thousands of other cases,
wonder why the discovery of fish production was not known at an ear-
lier period.

142 A Street, N. E., WasMngton, D. C.

After sealing my letter I found I had omitted any allusion to the
planting of fish in Michigan. So far as I can judge our State will soon
be amply supplied with whitefish, eels, salmon, speckled trout, gray-
ling, and carp. Most of our inland lakes have outlets to the various
rivers. I beheve the carp will become our standard fish, as we have

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 263

thousands of shallow lakes.and streams that this fish may do well in,
while such fish as bass, pickerel, perch, and flesh-eating fish seek deeper
and colder waters. Whitefish are caught varying in size from 3 to 6
l)Ounds in lakes where they were planted four years ago. When bass
and pickerel shall be got out carp and whitefish will become our stand-
ard fish. Eels, I think, will inhabit all our waters.. I have opened
lumdreds of eels in Pennsylvania, but never found a fish in one of
them or in a catfish, as I have in bass, pickerel, perch, and some other
kinds. Hence fish that live on vegetable matter are the kind for us to
propagate. I hope to see fish culture encouraged by national and State
bounties. Michigan will ere long have fish to export to other States if
properly encouraged.

^ NOTES ON THE GliOUCESTEK FISHERY.

By S. J. MARTIW.

[Letter to Prof. S. F. Baird.]

The most of the netters have put their nets ashore. Could not get
fish enough in them to make it pay. The fishermen that put their nets
down in November have used them uj). No fault with the nets. They
don't get any fish, because there are no fish inshore. I think if one
of the boats had gone out to Long Island it would have done well.
There have been plenty offish at Coney Island and Rockaway this winter.
I think some nets would have done first-rate. They fish there with hand-
lines, two men in a boat. They don't fish more than three miles from
shore. There are plenty of herring this winter at Grand Manan and New-
foundland. Some A^essels have made three trips this winter to Grand
Manan, five vessels at Newfoundland, coming home full. Two have ar-
rived with full cargoes. Herring are selling at 75 cents a hundred.
The vessels are doing well on George's. The vessels get more halibut
this winter than they have the past ten years. They fish on the east-
ern part of the bank in 40 fixthoms water. They get as high as 8,000
pounds. In catching 20,000 pounds cod, that makes a good trip. There
are six vessels getting ready to go to the western bank after codfish. It
is early for vessels to go the western bank. What started them oft'
so early? The haddock vessels (one of them was on the western part of
western bank) found plenty of codfish ; more cod than haddock. All
kinds of fish bring a high price. Fresh halibut sold yesterday at 7 cents
a pound; fresh cod, 3 cents a pound; haddock, 3^ cents a pound; salt
cod out of the vessel, 3:| cents a pound. Dried George's cod sold yester
day at $5 75 a quintal. Everything looks prosperous for the coming year.
The most of the old stock is out of the market.

Gloucester, Mass., January 22, 1882.

264 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

C0I>-FISHIi\O tVITU GII^CrVETS IN IPS^VI€H BAV, MASSACHU-
SETTS.

By S- J. ITIAKTIN.

[Letter to Prof. S. F. Baird.J

I had a letter from Mr. Clark saying that Major Ferguson wanted to
know if he could get some cod spawn. I don't think we can get any
this winter. The reason is, that there are no hand-line fishermen. All
the fish are now caught with nets and trawls, which are set over night
and hauled in the morning. There is therefore no chance to get spawn
from live fish.

The fish are scarce. The prospect in Ipswich Bay is better for net-
lishing than it was last month. Boat Eva May caught 7,000 pounds in
two nights with twenty-four nets. That is better. The boats that put
their nets ashore have taken them on board again. They are going to
try their luck again. They don't catch any fish on trawls. They find
nets better in the winter than trawls.

Seventy thousand pounds of cod have been caught in nets during the
past fortnight. This is more than they caught inshore on all the trawls
ihey had set.

Oloucestee, Mass., February 1, 1882.

ARTIFICIAL. CUL.TURE OF MEDICINAL. liEECHES ANO OF SPECIES

OF IIEL.IX.

By RUDOLPH H£SS£LL.

[Letter to Prof. S. F. Baird.]

Beferring to your formerly expressed intention to make at the United
States fish i)onds a trial of breeding the Hiriido medicinalis, or medicinal
leech, and other species of HirudOj I beg to remind you of the matter,
deeming this season most favorable for the importation of a number of
propagative animals. It will require for the first trial not more than 200
to 300 or 400 individuals and I have found a little pond about 30 inches
by 16 inches the best size.

I recommend for this purpose the green species, Hirudo officinalis,
from Southeastern Europe (Hungary, Croatia, Bosnia), and the brown
.species, Hirudo medicinalis, from Southwestern Europe (Italy, Spain,
IFrance, and some few parts of Southern Germany) . There are some other
•different kinds coming from Asia Minor, Egypt, Algeria, and Morocco ;
hwt I think the above named are the best for breeding and medical pur-
poses. They have more eggs in the cocoon (12 or 15 to 20) and are
aiot subject to many diseases, and they are hardy enough for our
climate. I must explain to you that the so-called marketable Hirudo
tiiat we find in the drug-stores is not the propagative one ; it is too small,

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 265

too yoimg for this purpose. It requires a larger size — four to six year old
oues, of 4 iuches to 5 iuehes iu length. I kept iu my ponds as breeders
a large size, 5 iuches to G inches long and 1 inch thick (after feeding).
They call them in Austria, Germany, "mother-leeches; " in France, sang-
sue- V aches.

On this occasion I believe it my duty to call your attention to the
special breeding of another animal, whicli is extensively carried on in
Italy, Spain, France, Austria, and South Germany, namely, that of i7e??',r
pomatia. This breeding is as yet quite unknown in America, although
large quantities of Rclix aspersa are brought to Xew York from private
establishments each winter.

How extensively the breeding of helices is carried on in Southern
Europe, France, Austria, Italy, and South Germany (not at all in Cen-
tral and Xorthern Germany), you may gather from the circumstance that
Marseilles ships more than 10,000 to 15,000 hundredweight for Paris
and London ; Genoa the same quantity.

Austria breeds a great many ; Bavaria, Wiirtemberg, and Baden, too,
for the Vienna, Munich, Swiss, and Paris markets.

When a young boy I collected them by the thousand in the valleys
and little hills of the Black Forest Mountains and in the sunny meadows
of the Up])er Ehiue, where I found many other kinds of Helix.

I myself raised some of them years after, by the thousand, in my own
business, and these were the Helix pomatia out of the vineyards, Helix
rhodostoma from France and Italy; H. aspersa (France) and H. rennicu-
laris.

Not much room is needed to keep about 1,000 or 2,000 living iu, and,
for breeding purposes, a box, 20 feet by 5 feet by 2 feet in depth, sunk
into the ground and covered with a wire screen frame, will answer to
raise about 40,000 to 50,000, with a few square yards of ground to plant
the food for them.

Washington, D. ©., February 9, 1882.

FISHER V IVEWS FRO.V Or.OL'CESTER, iTIAS$IACHi:SETTS.

By S. J. MARTIN.

TFrom a letter to Prof. S. F. Baird.") •

The weather during the last month has been very bad for all kinds of
fishing. When there is a chance they get some fish in nets. When nets
have been down two or three days with fish in them, most of the fish
are spoiled. The nets get badly torn ; they could do better with them
than with trawls, however, if they had fine weather. The schooner
ISTorthern Eagle arrived yesterday; she had been trawling down at Boone
Island. When there was a chance to set, they would get 2,000 i)ounds
of fish with 9,000 hooks. The average a night with 24 nets last week
was 2,500 pounds. The nets would do better than that. We had suck

266 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

bad weather that it keeps the water thick and dirty all the time. When
the nets are hauled up they are full of sea- weed, kelp, and all such stuff';
so, in rough weather, they don't have much chance to fish. I had a talk
with George, my son; he says he never saw so many beach-hsh as he
saw last Wednesday ; they were off shore and as far in as the eye could
sfe ; they were bound to the westward. The same day he saw a large
school of porpoises bound west. The vessels that were out in the last
gale, February 4, come in slowly. I am sorry to say I think some
of them will never come. Some of the haddock vessels have been gone
four weeks. Some of the George's vessels have been out as long ; I hope
they will all come, but I think it doubtful. All the vessels that have
come in are more or less damaged; they all report the gale very hard.
I think if we had fine weather they would do well with nets for a month
to come. The fresh-halibut catchers that have come in fared hard ; their
decks swei)t, and the dories stove. All say one thing : it was a bad time.
Gloucester, Mass., February 12, 1882.

AIV OPIIVIOIV RECiARDIIVC} THE INFI. VEIVCE UPOIV THE COAST FISH-
JGRIE!!^ OF THE STEA3£ER.<^ USED IN THE ITIEIVHA0EIV FISHERV.

By J. W. HATI^KINS.

[Letter to Prof. Spencer F. Baird.]

Jamespoet, ]Sr. Y., January 20, 1882.

I am engaged in the menhaden fishery, having been master of a
steamer in that business for six years past and before that for four
years in a sail vessel.

In view of the fact that a bill is pending before the ISTew Jersey legis-
lature to stop the use of steamers for catching menhaden off the coast of
that State, will you please state your views as to the relative extent of
the injury, if any, done to the fisheries for edible fish bj^ the operations
of the menhaden fishermen as compared with the influence of other
causes, including the destruction of menhaden by their natural enemies?

1. Do we catch edible fish ourselves with our set-nets?

We do not find them with the menhaden, except as they are chasing
, and worrying the menhaden.

We never look for nor set for anything else but menhaden, and, take
the season through, we do not catch enough to supply our table on board
the steamer.

There was one instance that you have heard of, but it was exceptional
and was the only one that ever happened in my experience. In June
last, while on my steamer, the J. W. Hawkins, off Eockaway, I set for
what I supposed to be a school of menhaden. When I had surrounded
them I thought I discovered they were bluefish and that my seine was
gone (for bluefish eat a seine, and such a school would have destroyed

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 267

it quickly), but I could not get away from them, and was glad to flud
they were weakflsli. I took about 20 tons of them and carried thera at
once to Fulton Market, New York, and sold them for edible tish. At
the same time two other steamers made hauls of the same and sold
theirs in the same way.

I have been engaged in menhaden fishing for thirteen jeavs and
for six years have been master of a steamer iu that business, and in my
judgment, during that time, not one fish of one thousand of those which
have been rendered into fertilizers was an edible tish, unless the menha-
den themselves are called such.

2. Assuming that menhaden are the chief food of the bluefish, and iu
part of the weakfish, bonito, cod, and bass, do our steamers render those
edible fish scarce by driving off or catching up the menhaden "?

That is a question which every one engaged in the busmess is inter-
ested in asking.

I am entirely satisfied with the position taken by Professors Baird,
Huxley, Goode, and others, that all the menhaden that man has ever
caught in any one year have been but as a drop in the bucket compared
to those which are annually destroyed by the bluefish and sharks, and
their other natural enemies.

Some years, when with a sail- gear, I have found less fish than in
other years, but since I have been in a steamer, my cruising has been
more extended and I can't say that I have seen less fish in any one year
than in another. During the season of 1881 I cruised from Cape Hen-
lopen to Montauk Point, and in my judgment as many fish came on to
coast in the spring as I ever saw iu a spring before, and although the
fish were in different localities from what they sometimes are, I think
I saw as many menhaden that season as ever before.

2. Does the cruising of our steamers drive the menhaden from any
part of the coast f I believe it does not.

Although it is true that menhaden do oftentimes seem to be shy, and
do not show up as well as at others, and although you may by rowing
ahead of or around a small school cause them to sink below the surface,
and that they will then change their position before showing uj) again, and
although when you make a stab at one side of a school it may turn just
far enough to clear your seine and then pursue its course ; yet it is my
opinion, and so far as I know it is the universal opinion of fishermey,
that when a large body of fish is coming upon the coast, or is located
upon the coast, or at sea, there is no such thing as stoi:)ping them or
varying their course by nets or boats or steamers or by any other means
that we know of.

We cannot explain the movements of the menhaden.

During most of the season of 1881 they were on the coast of Kew Jersey,
and most of the fishing fleet were there, but the menhaden did not leave.
It is said that edible tish were scarce on the coast during 1881, but it

268 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

could not liave been from the absence of their food, for the menhaden
were there.

Steamers certainly don't frighten the fish. Their going over a school
of menhaden has no more effect than a sail vessel. They sink at the
bow and come up at the stern. Moreover the steamers don't go near the
school ; they simjily carry the fishing-crews to the fishing-grounds and
wait ofl' one side to receive the fish after they are caught.

NOT£8 0:S the: C^I^OUCEi^TER FISiXERIE.S.

By S. J. MAKTIIV.

[From a letter to Prof. S. F. BaircL]

Five boats are fishing for cod with nets, each boat having 24 nets.
They have a new set of nets. The rest of the vessels that had nets are
using trawls. They have done better with nets the last week. The five
boats with nets landed at Eockport last week 44,000 pounds of large
cod. Some of the trawlers got as many fish. They were mixed fish —
cod, haddock, hake, cusk — so the trawlers did not get half the money
the netters did. The fish they got in nets are large, mostly male fish.
I looked at 800 pounds and found that two-thirds were male fish. The
female fish had very little spawn in them. I found 6 females with spawn
nearly ripe. I was glad to hear that you got plenty of cod spawn at
New York. Cod have Ijeen i)lenty off the Long Island coast all winter.
I will tell you a little about haddock fishing on George's. There has
been a large school of haddock on George's for the last three weeks. I
will give you some facts, then you can judge for yourself. Schooner
Martha C. arrived yesterday with 90,000 pounds, gone eight days;
schooner Josie M. Calderwood, 85,000 i^ounds, gone seven days;
schooner H. A. Duucau, 80,000 pounds, gone seven days. Four vessels
left here Saturday and were back Wednesday with 40,000 pounds of
haddock, having fished one day and a half. That is good work and
quick work. The vessels don't find the codfish very plenty on George's.
The average pounds of fish brought in by the George's vessels the last
trip were 16,000 pounds of cod and 2,000 ])ounds of halibut. Most of
them were gone three weeks. The halibut-catchers have done nothing.
Schooner Corrina H. Bishop arrived yesterday ; been out 0 weeks; lost
6 men and 1,500 pounds of halibut. Two of the haddock fleet are miss-
ing; I don't think they will ever come back; they have b.een out since
the 18th day of January. The vessels are schooner Edith M. Pew, Cap-
tain Corliss; schooner Paul Eevere, Captain Beutly. They have not
been seen since the gale of February 4. The price of fresh fish the last
week has been high ; there was a large pile of haddock yesterday. They
all sold at 2 cents to 3.J cents a pound — good prices since there are so
many fish.

Gloucester, Mass., February 19, 1882.

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 269

0> THE FOOB OF YOUIVC; AVHITEFSSII (COREGONITS).
By S. A. FORBES.

[Letter to Prof. S. F. Baird.]

Please allow me to add to the facts relating to tlie first food of the
whitefish, detailed in my letter of last spring, the following notes from
recent observations :

According to an arrangement made with Mr. Frank X, Clarke, I went
toKacine, Wis., on the IGth instant, in order to search the lake for minute
animal life at the place where it was i)roposed to plant a lot of young
whitetish. Mr. Clarke's party made better railroad connections than
he expected when he telegraphed me, and the fish had been released
about nine hours when I arrived; I took a boat as soon as possible, and
made a careful search for entomostrapa in the water of Eacine Eiver,
near its mouth, and in the lake at various depths and distances from the
shore.

The entomostraca occurring were all of species which I had previously
collected off Chicago and in Grand Traverse Bay, viz, an undescribed
Cyclops [C. T/<o»ms/, MSS.), an undescribed variety of I>iaptomus gra-
c?7»sSars; a new species of centropages (especially interesting, since the
genus has been hitherto unknown only from saltwater); and Daphne
(jaleata f Sars.

The Cyclops and diaptomus were about equally abundant, but the
centropages and daphnia were much less common. All were much more
abundant in the rivers than in the lake, and in the latter were more
numerous at or near the bottom than at the surface. This was perhaps
owing to the cool and lowering weather. Immense numbers of diatoms
lined the towing net after every haul, with a brownish, mucilaginous
coating, the vegetable life far surpassing the animal in quantity.

I dragged the towing net as nearly as possible a quarter of a mile at
each haul, and saved each time the entire contents of the net. Taking
a definite part of the product of the most fruitful haul and counting the
entomostraca in this, I reached the conclusion that they occurred here
at the rate of two or three to the cubic foot of water, or, taking favor-
able and unfavorable situations together, at about one or two to tlie
foot; this suggests the j)ropriety of scattering the deposit of fish as much
as possible, unless it is certain that they scatter rapidly when left to
themselves. It should be noted that the most abundant species here
at this season of the year were, fortunately, the smallest. IMr. Clarke
kindly gave me a few young fishes left in one of the cans, and I suc-
ceeded in getting about twenty-five of them home alive.

I put these in a small aquarium with well-water on the 17th and sup-
plied them with entomostraca and alg® of various kinds from the pools

270 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

of this vaciuity. The entomostraca were chiefly large cladocera {Simo-
cepJialas), cj'clops, and canthocamptus. To the alga?, the little fishes
have paid no attention wliatever, although they are well scattered
through the water. They have followed the smaller entomostraca
aronnd with growing interest from the first, occasionally making irreso-
lute efforts to capture them, but did not actually begin eating until to-
day. Now, howes'er, more than one-half of them have evidently taken
food. In the seven cases examined , this consisted entirely of cyclops
and canthocamptus, the smallest entomostaca in the water. The cla-
docera are evidently too large for them, and they even seem afraid of
them, although, of course, the former could do them no harm.

The fishes all have visible remains of the egg within the body, but,
as their teeth are already well developed, they are doubtless at the
proper age to commence eating. This seems to me nearly conclusive
proof, taken with my previous observations, that the first natural food
of the whitefish is small entomostraca, especially cyclops {Canthocamp-
iuii occurs rarely, if at all, in Lake Michigan), but it may be worth while
to repeat my little experiment on a larger scale and uuder more natural
conditions.

I have consequently taken steps to study a number of specimens kept
in the water of the lake and supplied with the organisms occurring in
the lake waters.

It will be impossible for me to keep alive the few which I have, long
enough to tell how well they would flourish on the food supplied to
them.

Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History,

Normal, 111., Fehruary 20, 1882.

SOME RESriiTS OF THE ABTIFIC'IAIi PKOPAGATIOW OF iflAIIVE AND
CAf.IFORIVf A SAI.:YI0IV IIV new EIVCH.A1\I> and CA3fAI>A, RECOR-
DED IIV THE YEARS 1S79 AIVD ISSO.

[Compiled by the United States Fisli Commissioner.]

New Bedford, Mass., May 20, 1879.
Prof. S. F. Baird:

Sir : I have just been in the fish market and a crew were bringing
in their fish from one of the " traps." A noticeable and peculiar feature
of the fishery this year is the great numbers of young salmon caught,
especially at the Vineyard, although some few are caught daily at Soon-
ticiit Neck (mouth of our river). There are apparently two different
ages of them. Mostly about 2 iiounds in weight (about as long as a
large mackerel) and about one-half as many weighing from 6 to 8 pounds;
occasionally one larger. One last week weighed 23 iiounds and one 18
pounds. The fishermen think they are the young of those with which
some of our rivers have been stocked, as nothing of the kind has oc-
curred in past years at all like this.

JOHN H. THOMSON.

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 271

iN'EW Bedford, Mass., June 1, 1879.
Prof. Spencer F. Baird:

Sir : I received yours. I have examined carefully since your letter,
but no salmon bare been taken. The ran was about the two first weeks
in IMay and a few the last of April. Mr. Bassett had about 30 to 35
from the trap at Menimpsha, and 10 or 12 from Scohticut Neck,
mouth of our river. Mr. Bartlett, at his fish market, had about one
dozen ; 12 from the traps near the mouth of Slocum's Eiver, six miles
west of here, and I have heard of two taken at mouth of Westport Eiver.
As to the particular species, I do not get any reliable information, as so
few of our fishermen know anything about salmon, and in fact the men
from the traps on Sconticut Neck did not know what the fish were,

JOHN H. THOMSON.

FISHING ITEMS.

The squid fishery from this port has thus far proved a failure. There
have been five arrivals with but a few barrels. Schooner Crest of the
Wave is high-line, she having succeeded in obtaining fifty barrels.

A ten-pound salmon and seventeen tautog, weighing over one hun-
dred pounds, were taken from the weirs of Magnolia, Thursday night.
This is the first salmon caught off Cape Ann for over thirty years. On
Saturday morning three more large salinon were taken and 150 large
mackerel. The fishermen are highly elated at the prospect of salmon
cat<3hing. — (Cape Ann Advertiser, June 6, 1879.)

[Po8tscrii)t to a letter from Monroe A. Greeu, New York State Fishery Commission, to

Fred Mather, June 9, 1879. ]

" P. S. — Kennebec salmon caught to-day in the Hudson Eiver at Bath
near Albany we'ighing twelve and a half pounds, sold for 40 cents per
pound. The first that have been caught for years."

State of Maine, Department of Fisheries,

Bangor^ August 25, 1879.

[Extracts.]

Dear Professor : * * * We have had a great run of salmon
this year, and consisting largely of fish planted by us in the Penobscot
four or five years ago, so far as we could judge; there were a very large
number, running from 9 to 12 pounds. The east and west branches of
the Penobscot report a great many fish in the river. On the Matta-
wamkeag, where we put in 250,000 and upwards, in 1875 and 1870, a
great many salmon are reported trying to get over the lower dam at

272 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

Gordon's Falls, 13 feet liigli. These fisli were put in at Bancroft, Eaton,
and Kingman, on the EurojDean and North American Railroad. The dam
at Kingham is 13 feet; at Slewgundy, 14 feet ; at Gordon's Falls, 13 feet,
and yet a salmon has been hooked on a trout fly at Bancroft, and sal-
mon are seen in the river at Kingman, and between the dams at Slew-
guu<ly and Gordon's Falls. * * * The dealers in our city have re-
tailed this season 50 tons Penobscot salmon, and aboutS tons Saint John
salmon ; it all sells as Penobscot salmon. Saint John salmon costs here,
duty and all included, about 14 cents per pound. Our first salmon sells
at $1 per pound, and so on down to 12^ cents the last of the season.
Salmon at Bucksport has sold to dealers here at 8 cents. Two tons
taken at Bucksport and Orland in 24 hours. Average price at retail
here for whole season, 25 cents.

Truly, vours,

E. M. STILWELL.

State of Maine, Department of Fisheries,

Bangor, October 4, 1879.
Dear Professor : My delay in replying to your kind letter has been
from no want of courtesy, but a desire to send you the required "data"
you asked. Neither myself nor Mr. Atkins have been able to procure
them. The weir fishermen keep no records at all, and it is difllicult to
obtain from them anything reliable ; while the fishermen above tide
water are a bad set of confirmed poachers, whose only occupation is
hunting and fishing both in and out of season. They are always jeal-
ous and loth to let us know how good a thing they make of it, for fear
of us and fear of competition from their own class. Four or five years
since I put in some 300,000 salmon fry into the Mattawamkeag at Ban-
croft, Eaton, Ivingsmore, and at Mattawamkeag village. There are
three dams between Mattawamkeag and Bancroft — none less than 12
feet high. About six weeks since Mr. Nathaniel Sweat, a railroad con-
ductor on the European and North American Railroad, while fishing
for trout from a pier above the railroad bridge at Bancroft, hooked a
large salmon and lost his line and flies. Salmon in great numbers have
been continually jumping below the first dam, which is called "Gordon's
Falls." My colleague, Everett Smith, of Portland, a civil engineer,
while making a survey for a fishway, counted 15 salmon jumping in 30
minutes. A Mr. Bailey, who is foreman of the repair shop at Matta-
wamkeag, walked up to the falls some three weeks since entirely out
of curiosity excited by the rumors of the sight, and counted 60 salmon
jumping in about an hour, within half or three-quarters of a mile of the
falls. This is on the IVIattawamkeag, which is a great tributary of the
Penobscot. On the east branch of the Penobscot there has been a
great run of salmon. An explorer on the AVassattaquoik reported the
pools literally black with salmon. A party of poachers, hearing tlie
rumor, went in from the town of Hodgon and killed 25. I inclose you

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 273

a letter to me from Mr. Prentiss, one of our most wealthy and promi-
nent niercliants, which speaks for itself. I will be obliged to you if you
will return this, as I shall have occasion to use it in my report. On the
west branch of the Penobscot 1 hear reports of large numbers of salmon,,
but the breaking of the two great dams at Chesancook nnd the, Korth
Twin Dam, which holds back the great magazine of water of the great
tributary lakes which feed the Penobscot, which is used to drive the
logs cut in the winter, through the summer's drought, has let up all the
fish which hitherto were held back until the opening of the gates to let
the logs through. These fish would not, of course, be seen, as they would
silently make their way up. I regret that I have nothing of more value
to give you. Hoping that this small contribution may at least cheer
you as it has me,

1 remain, trulv, vours,

E. M. STILWELL,

Commissioner of Fisheries for State of Maine.

Prof Spencer F. Baird,

United States Commissioner Fish and Fisheries.

Bangor, October 3, 1879.
E. M. Stilwell, Esq.,

Dear Sir : Prof. C. E. Hamlin, of Harvard, and I made a trip to

Mount Katahdinlast month for scientific examination and survey of the

mountain. I had been salmon fishing in July on the Grand Bona-

venture, on Bay of Chaleur, and I could not see why we could not

catch salmon on the east branch of the Penobscot at the Hunt place

where we crossed it on our way in to Katahdin. I thought the pool

from month of Wassatiquoik to the Hunt i)lace, about a half-mile,

must be an excellent salmon pool, and my guide and the people there

confirmed this opinion. They said over a hundred salmon had been

taken in that one pool this season. The nearest settlement, and only

one on the whole east branch, is about six miles out from there, and the

young men go on Sundays and fish with drift-nets. No regular fishing

for market — only a backwoods local supply can be used. These fish were

all about of one size — say 8 to 11 pounds. There were never enough fish

there before to make it worth while for them to drift for them. A few

years ago no salmon were caught there at all. Twenty-two years ago,

before our fish laws were enacted, the farmer at tlie Hnnt place used to

have a net that went entirely across the river clear to the bottom, which

be kept all the lime stretched across, and he only used to get two or three

salmon a week. I was there August, 1857, with Mr. Josei)h Carr, an

old salmon fisher, and we fished for ten days and could not get a rise.

The net had been taken up, because the farmer did not get fish enough

to pay for looking after it. But the stocking the river makes it good

fishing, and I intend to try the east branch next season with the fly.

Very truly,

HENEY M. PEENTISS.

Bull. U. S. F. C, 81 18 may 3, 1 8 83.

274 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

East Windsor Hill, Conn., October 13, 1879.
Professor Baird:

Dear Sir: It may be of interest to you to know tliat your salmon
are not all lost. Last Friday, 10th, I was with a party of three fishing
in Snipsic Lake, and one of our party caught a salmon that weighed
If jjounds. This is the second one taken since the pond was stocked,
as I was told. The other was caught this summer and weighed 12
ounces.

Cannot something be done to save our fish in Con necticutEiver'? There
is an establishment at Holyoke, IMass., and another at Windsor Locks,
Conn., that are manufacturing logs into paper, and I am told that the
chemicals used for that puri^ose are let off into the river twice a day, and
that the fish for half a mile come up as though they had been cockled.
Both of these factories are at the foot of falls where the fish collect and
stoj) in great numbers and are all killed. Our shores and sand bars are
literally lined v,ith dead fish. Three salmon have been found among
them within two miles of my office. They were judged to weigh 12, 20,
and 25 pounds. The dead fish are so numerous that eagles are here
after them. I have received nine that have been shot here in the past
two seasons.

I have written you in order that the fish commissioners might stop this
nuisance and save the fish that they have taken so much pains to prop-

agate.

Truly, yours,

WM. WOOD.

May 29 to Junp 13, 1879.— W. Scott Lord, Esq., gives the following
weights of 51 Salar salmon caught in theRestigouche Eiver near the junc-
tion with the Matapediac:

1 of 4 pounds.

1 of 10 pounds.

2 of 11 pounds.
2 of 12^ pounds.
1 of 13 pounds.

1 of 11^ pounds

2 of 15 pounds.
1 of 15J pounds.
1 of IG pounds.
1 of 17^ i^ounds.

1 of 20J pounds.

2 of 23 pounds.
5 of 24 pounds.
1 of 24^ pounds.

1 of 24f pounds.
6 of 25 pounds.

3 of 2bh pounds.
8 of 2G pounds.

4 of 27 pounds.

1 of 29i pounds.

2 of 33 pounds.
1 of 34 pountls.
1 of 36i pounds.
1 of 38i^ pounds.
1 of 40^ i^ounds.

51 weighing 1,200^ pounds.

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 275

Saint Stephen, March 1, 1880.
Prof. Spencer F. Baird,

U. 8. Commissioner Fish and Fisheries :

Dear Sir: I send you remarks in relation to the Restigonclie and
Saint Croix Rivers, which, though crude, I am sure are quite correct, as
they are either taken from the official statistics, or are facts of which I
am myself cognizant. You may, if of use, publish any part of them.
I very much wish wo could procure some young shad for the Saint
Croix; this fish was once very abundant, and perhaps would be again
if introduced. I know you have been very successful in restocking
the Connecticut. Our old people deplore the loss of the shad — saj^ it
was a much better food-fish than the salmon. I do a great deal of
shooting, and am much interested in ornithology, and specimens of our
birds that you might want I should be happy to lookout for ; do a good
deal of coast shooting winters ; have been hopefully looking for a Lab-
rador diich for a number of seasons — fear they have totally disappeared.

I have nice spring- water conducted to my house and think of doing

a little fish-hatching in a small way. The amount of water I can spare

is a stream of about half-inch diameter; the force will be considerable,

as the water rises to top of my house, some 50 feet above where I should

set trays. I write to you to ask what hatching api^aratus Avould be

best to get, where to buj^, and probable cost. I am trying to get some

sea-trout ova to hatch in it. I presume all your California ova have been

disposed of ere this.

FEANK TODD.

Saint Stephen. March 1, 1880.
Prof. Spencer F. Baird,

U. S. Commissioner Fish and Fisheries :
Sir : In regard to the Saint Croix, would say, that it was once one
of the most prolific salmon rivers in New Brunswick, but owing to the
erection of imi)assable dams, fifteen or twenty years ago, this valuable
fish had almost entirelj disax)peared. At about this time fishways were
placed in all the dams, and gradully salmon began to increase, but the
first great stimulus was given some ten years ago by the distribution of
some hundreds of thousands of young salmon in the headwaters, by the
fishery commissioners of Maine. The Dobsis Club also placed in the
Saint Croix some 200,000 or more from their hatchery, a portion being
the California salmon. With these exceptions our river has had no arti-
ficial aid, bnt for the last five years the number of salmon has largely
increased, due mainly, no doubt, to the deposits before mentioned. The
fish ways are generally in good condition (although some improvements
will be made), and fish have easy access to headwaters. That large
numbers go up and spawn is evidenced hj the large numbers of smolt
seen at the head of tidal water in the spring, many being taken by boys
with the rod. I have reason to expect that our government will hereafter

276 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

distribute annually in the Saint Oroix a goodly number of young salmon,
wliich, together Avith the contributions of the Maine commissioners,
will soon make this fish again abundant. Alewiv< s are very abundant,
and apparently increasing every year. Shad that were once plenty
have entirely disappeared. I very much wish that the river could be re-
stocked with this valuable fish ; possibly you could kindly assist us in this.
Landlocked salmon (here so called) are, I think, nearly or quite as plenty
at Grand Lake Stream as they were ten years ago ; this, I think, is almost
entirely due to the hatchery under the charge of Mr. Atkins; the tan-
nery at the head of the stream having entirely destroyed their natural
spawning beds, the deposit of hair and other refuse being in some
places inches deep. The twenty-five per cent, of all fish hatched, which
are honestly returned to our river, is, I think, each year more than we
would get by the natural process, under present circumstances, in ten
years.

FEANK TODD.

Saint Stephen, N. B., Dominion of Canada.
Prof. Spencer F. Baird,

U. 8. Commissioner Fish and Fisheries :

Sir : I think it has been clearly demonstrated in this Dominion that,
by artificial propagation and a fair amount of protection, all natural
salmon rivers may be kept thoroughly stocked with this fish, and
riv^ers that have been depleted, through any cause, brought back to
their former excellence.

I would instance the river Eestigouche in sui^port of the above state-
ment.

This river, which emjities into the Bay of Chaleur, is now, and always
has been, the foremost salmon river in New Brunswick, both as to size
and number of fish. It has not a dam or obstruction to the free pas-
sage of fish from its mouth to its source, yet up to 1868 and 1869 the num-
bers of salmon had constantly decreased. This, no doubt, was occa-
sioned by excessive netting at the mouth, and spearing the fish during
the summer in the pools; natural production was not able to keep pace
with this waste. In the year 1868 the number of salmon was so small
that the total catch hy anglers was only 20 salmon, and the commer-
cial yield only 37,000 pounds.

At about this date, the first salmon hatchery of the Dominion was built
upon this river and a better system of protection inaugurated; every
year since some hundreds of thousands of young salmon have been
hatched and i)laced in these waters, and the result has been, that in 1878
one angler alone (out of hundreds that were fishing the river) in sixteen
days killed by his own rod eighty salmon, seventy-five of which aver-
aged over twenty-six pounds each; while at the same time the numbers
that were being taken by the net fishermen below, for commercial pur-
poses, were beyond precedent, amounting in that one division alone

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 277

(not counting local and borne consumption) to the enormous weight of
500,000 pounds, and the cash receipts for salmon in Restigouche Countv
that year amounted to more than $40,000, besides which some $5,000
was expanded by anglers; this result was almost entirely brought about
by artificial proi)agation. A new hatchery of size sufidcient to produce
five million young hsh annually will no doubt soon be erected by the
Dominion Government upon this river.

A somewhat similar record might be given of the river Saguenay.
Some years ago anglers and net fishers of this river said it was useless
to lease from the department, as the scarcity of salmon was such as not
to warrant the outlay. A hatchery w^as built, and this state of things
is now wonderfully changed; so much so, indeed, that in 1878 salmon,
from the great numbers which were taken at the tidal fisheries, became
a drug in the market, selling often as low as three cents per pound, and
angling in the tributaries was most excellent.

Some one hundred million young salmon have been artificially hatched
and distributed in the waters of the Dominion during the last few years,
and new government hatcheries are constantly being erected.
Yours, &c.,

FEAXK TODD,

Fishery Overseer^ Saint Croix District.

FOOD OF THE .SHAD OF THF ATL.AIVTIC COA8T OF THE UIVITFD

STATES (ABjOSA E»K.ESTABI1>DS DE KAY); AND THE FUNCTIOIVS OF
THE PALOKIC CiECA*

By E. R. MORI>£€AI, M. D.

1. The small size an<l the arrangement of the teeth would suggest that
the food of this fish is easy of prehension.t

2. The gullet is cai)acious.

3. The stomach, as is well known, consists of a conical, and gizzard
portion. The tissues of the former do not differ from those of the stom-
ach of an ordinarj^ fish. The latter is a powerful muscular apparatus,
terminating in a very constricted pyloric orifice.

4. The pylorus opens into an intestinal tube neither remarkable for
its length nor breadth.

5. The pyloric coeca are fusiform sacculi, varying in itumber, by my
enumeration, from sixty to a hundred — according to the development of
the fish.

They enter the intestinal canal. The points of communication are
marked by depressions in the mucous membrane of the wall of the viscus.
Sometimes six or eight coeca will be found to open into a single dei)res-
siou.

* Reprinted from a pamphlet entitled: Food | of the | shad of the Atlantic coast |
of the I United States, | (AlosaprsestabilisDe Kay); | and the | functions of the pyloric
cceca. I by | E. R. Mordecai, M. D., | Member of the Academy of Natural Sciences of
Philadelphia. | — | Philadelphia: | King «& Baird, Printers, 607 Sansom St. | 1860.

tTho teeth are very minute.

278 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

Below the pylorus the iiitestiue is expanded for tin iuch and a quarter
of its length. It is into the inferior wall of this basin that the largest,
longest, and the greatest number of these appendages enter.

The c(Bca vary in length, by actual uieasurenient, from an inch to
three inches and a half; and in circumference, from tliat of a small probe
to that of a number si-x catheter. When the fish is in good condition,
they are sei)arated i'rom each other, and supported by delicate layers of
fat; the cellular tissue of which is abundantly supplied with vessels, that
expend themselves on the walls of the C(Bca. The blind extremities of
the sacculi gravitate treeiy in the abdominal cavity.

Such, in part, is pi rapid anatomical sketch of the organs of digestion.
What is the food of the fish? and what are the functions of the cffica?

As the shad of the Western Atlantic makes its appearance first oft' the
coast of Georgia, it occurred to me that could specimens, /m/z-nni from
the sea, be obtained from this locality immediately after the a})pearance
of the fish, that an opportunity would be offered of discovering from the
contents of the stomach jnore in relation to its habits than was known.

On the 2d of February of the current 3'ear, two shad, which were for-
tunately ijrocuied from Savannah, Ga., were examined at my office in
Mobile.

The stomach of the first contained nothing except a small quantity of
brownish mucus, which others liave described.

But 1 was astonished to find the coeca greatly elongated and distended.
They were of a tiesh color — evidently due to their contents, viz : a homo-
geneous-looking fluid, which, when squeezed through the coecal orifices
into the intestinal canal, was found not to differ materially, under the
naked eye, from the brownish mucus alluded to above. To my mind the
functions of the coeca were api)arent.

The gizzard-stomach of the second specimen, in addition to the brown-
ish mucus, contained a minute quaiitity of solid matter. This was im-
mediately mounted on a slide and subjected to a lens of low i)Ower
suitable for examining vegetable tissue entire.

I was amazed at the beauty and perfection of the objects displayed —
minute cylindrical stalUs, and differently shaj)ed and colored fragments
of alga?, gemmed with the pearly calcareous shields of infusoria! Many
of the shells, hi^ving altogether escaped the effects of the action of the
stomach, preserved their integrit}' — bi convex loricae predominating.

A Bailey would know and name them at a glance.

They are to be seen of all sizes, from the fully formed disc to that
presenting under the same power a mere i)oint.

An algologist might readily determine the species to which the fuci
belong.

The question relative to the food oi Alosn prccstabiUs is answered.

Shad feed and fatten on marine fuci, and on the microscopic organisms
that are parasitically attached. Both are necessary to the economy of
the fish. How beautiful the adaptation! The succulent vegetable mat-

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 279

ter, held and macerated in the conical division of the stomach, passes
gradually into the gizzard, where it is in time thoroughly disintegrated
by the powerful walls of this muscular apparatus, aided by the sharp
points and edges of the broken shells of the infusoria, lieduced to
ehyuie — the brownish uuicns of some observers — it passes the snudl
l)yloric orifice, is changed by admixture with the proper secretions, which
meet it at the threshold, and is immediately siicled up into the cceca,
that distend to receive it.

In these receptacles the liquid food, prepared in the ocean, is stored
away to nourish the fish in its long passage, live or six hundred miles
perhaps, to the headwaters of rivers, where the ova are to be deposited
and receive impregnation. Thus we may explain how it is that a fish
coming to us in superb condition from the sea, with nothing apparently
in its intestinal canal but a little discolored mucus, can make this ascent,
execute the functions necessary for the reproduction of its species, and
descend to its feeding grounds in the deep.

In the absence of food the fish feeds on the nutritive contents of the
cceca; either by forcing a certain quantity of the fluid into the large
intestine, or, and this is far more likely, by absorption immediately from
the cceca — each of these appendages being provided with a sphincter,
or valvular arrangement, to prevent the involuntary passage of its
contents into the general reservoir. The action of gravity on the free
extremities of the loaded tubes would materially assist this retention.

Something like this, there is little doubt in my mind, takes place in
the other species, and genera, provided with cceca, that run from the sea
to spawn. These useful appendages varying in number, and size, ac-
cording to the habits of the fish, and the presence or absence of food in
the fresh-water streams which they ascend.

Some finding, although precariously, appropriate food, a part of the
fortuitous excess of to-day is stored away for to-morrow's scarcity.

The adult shad from its habits during the season for spawning (for the
fatness of the fish and the apparent emptiness of its alimentary canal
have long been subjects of wonder) requiring an abundant supply of food
for long voyages, has a great number of receptacles.

The number varies in individuals of the same species; less than
seventy and more than ninety-five having been carefully counted by
me in the specimens examined. And this difference seems to be directly
in proportion to the size, and, there is good reason to believe, the age of
the fish. It may be thus explained. In the young adult shad some of
the coeca are rudimentary.* They are gradually developed with the
growth of the fish until a fixed number is reached for the species.

* Since tbis paper was read before the Academy, I have found some of these organs
in a rudimentary state in the young adult of Labrax lineatus (striped bass, rocls-fish),
and in specimeus of the species of Dioplites (another of the perch family) generally
known as "trout" at the South.

Preparations proving these ichthyological points are in my possession.

280 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

Let us take a British enumeration of these organs in diiferent families,
having different habits, and requiring different food. "While there are
six in the smelt {Salmo eperlanus), there are seventy in the salmon {8.
salar). In like manner, though there are eighteen in the anchovy
{Glupea cncrasicolns), there are twenty-four in the herring (C Jiarcngiis),
and fourscore in the shad (C. alosa). In some, as in the cod, says the
same authority, they consist of several large trunks, ramihed into nu-
merous small ones.

The herring and anchovy, though closely allied to the shad, are of
small size, and do not go far beyond brackish water to spawn. Hence
their coeca are few and small. The salmon, a fish of large size, has
fewer recei>tacles than the shad ; for the former can obtain, from day
to day, suitable food in the fresh waters it frequents. But the adult
shad, from the nature of its food. Is dependent upon that, in the liquid
state, which it brings with it from the ocean 5 and consequently its
pyloric appendages are numerous and long.

In the cod, as was stated before, the coeca consist of several large
trunks ramified into numerous small ones. Now, as this is exclusively
a salt-water fish, the arrangement here would seem to be at variance
with the opinion expressed concerning the uses of these organs. But,
compared with the shad, the cod is of enormous size, and, though a salt-
water fish, it is highly probable that, for the most part, it migrates from
its feeding grounds to perform its reproductive functions in securer
oceanic localities than those in which it fattens.

It is the shad, however, which occupies our attention.

The distance from shore at which this fish can obtain its appropriate
food may be inferred from the botanical nature of the alg?e on which
they feed; and i)erhaps the shells of the infusoria may assist the search.
As a guide, the statement of Forbes should be regarded.

"The British marine plants," says that author, "are distributed in
depth or bathymetrically in a series of zones or regions which ex-
tend from high- water mark down to the greatest explored depths" (for
plants).

There are no waters more fertile in algse than those of the Gulf of
Mexico; and none in which the minute organisms, that fasten on marine
plants, are more numerous and varied. A cold aqueous belt, of vast
area — bounded on the south by the gulf-stream — almost isothermal with
that which washes the shores of Georgia and the Carolinas — extends
along the coast Jrom the mouth of the Mississippi to Cape Sable.

Here may be found several species of alosa. One, from its size and
physical construction, and as an article of fooil, rises considerably above
insignificance. It is frequently caught in the headwaters of the rivers
of Alabama, where it spawns. But the shad of the Atlantic, a fish
affording, from its gregarious and prolific nature, a valuable food for man,
does not naturally exist in the Gulf ol Mexico. Yet there is much reason

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 281

to believe that in this sea it could obtain, in great abundance, the pe-
culiar food adapted to its wants.*

Once successfully introduced, in numbers sufficient to sustain the
species against the natural causes of destruction, it must become abun-
dant. For tlie temperature of the gulf-stream opposing, according to
recent experiments, an irremovable barrier to its exit, its oceanic range,
on the western side of Florida, would be limited to the body of cold
water, the boundaries of which have been described.t

Many of the rivers that pour their contents into this belt would seem
to be as well adapted to the functions of reproduction as any the shad
naturally frequents. Let us take for comparison the Ockmulgee — one
of the branches of the Altamaha, a river of Georgia — and the Flint
Kiver, a tributary of the Apalachicola, which flows through western
Florida into the Gulf of Mexico.

These streams have their origin in the same State, and spring from a
geographical range which is geologically the same. At one point they
almost touch. Now the Ockmulgee, like its sister tributary, the Oconee,
teems with shad ; while in the Flint Eiver they are unknown. Yet they
are in juxtaposition, and their waters, for the practical purj^oses of this
deduction, are homogeneous. One makes its way to the Atlantic Ocean,
where shad abound; the other to the Gulf of Mexico, where they do not
exist.

But be the possibility of its successful introduction into the Gulf what
it may, such, as has been shown, is the food of this fish; and such, with
deference to the opinions of others, are the functions of the coeca.

These assertions rest on —

1. Th^ examination of twenty-five or thirty shad obtained from Sa-
vannah, Ga, at different times, from February 2d to March 15th, of this
year (18G0). In three specimens only were the stomachs entirely empty,
and in these the cceca were greatly distended.

2. Nineteen stomachs with their contents dried, and glued to glass
with Canada balsam. In all of which are to be seen the fuci and shells
of infusoria, and in one numerous cylindrical stalks of algae are plainly
to be recognized by the naked eye.

3. A part of one of the coeca opened, and flattened out on a slide, the
dried contents resting on the mucous membrane. With a glass of higher
power, sparkling i)oints of the calcareous discs, which have escaped the
action of the gastric juice, may be seen, here and there, in the thinnest
parts of this specimen.

4. A parasite from the mucous surface of the above ccecum, identical
with one taken from the conical stomach of the same fish.

* Since this pamiihlet was in-inted I have discovered in the stomach of a species of
Alosa, very uumeious in the Gulf of Mexico, fucus and shells identical with those found
ill the Atlantic shail.

t Sec a paper by Mr. Wm. Gessner, of Milledgeville, Ga., in August No. of the Cotton
Planter and Soil, p. 256, Montgomery, Ala., 1858.

282 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

5. A section of the intestinal canal, cut from a point below the open-
ing' of the coecum nearest the termination of the alimentary tube, spread
on glass. It exhibits on its mucous membrane an inspissated matter of
a somewhat darker brown color than that of No. 3, and the debris of
microscopic shells, small enough to i)ass the pylorus, but too large to
enter the mouths of the coeca.

C. A wet preparation of the gullet, stomach, c<Bca, and intestine.

7. A preparation in ether of the cceca, their orifices, and the intestinal
exp.ansion in which they open.

8. Several dried stomachs (some of the last obtained) unopened, but
supposed to contain the fuci and infusoria described.

The most important of the specimens have been placed in the hands
of Lieutenant Holt, U. S. A., who has kindly undertaken to deliver
them to Dr. Walter F. Atlee, of Philadelphia, to be presented by him,
with this monograph, to the Academy of Natural Sciences.

[An abstract of this paper will be found in the December number
(1860) of the Proceedings of the Academy of N. Sciences of Philadel-
I)hia, appended as a continuation of the report from the Biological De-
partment of the Academy for May, 1860. By reference to this report
it may be se^n that the statements made in relation to the contents of the
stomachs and the cwca were abundantly verified by members of the Acad-
emy in the specimens mounted for microscopical examination which
accompanied this paper.*

Before the shells of the minute organisms can be easily recognized,
the solid contents of the stomach should be thinly spread on glass and
thoroughly dried, in order to remove the liquid matter which renders
these small objects obscure. With specimens thus i^repared from fish
fresh run from the sea during the spawning season, examined under a
bright sunlight, the investigations detailed in this i)aper may be easily
repeated.

Mobile, Ala., October 25, I860.]

TBLE imCROPYliE OF THE ECJCJ OF THE 1VHITE PEKCH.

By JOH]\ A. KYDER.

[Letter to Professor S. F. Baird.]

I have found the micropyle of the egg of the white perch; it measures
.0075 millimeter or -g^^Va iiich in diameter. Average diameter of egg, -^
inch; of oil sphere, y^o inch.

Washington, D. C, 3Iay 17, 1881.

* As the vegetable matter in the stomach of the fish is in a disintegrated state, a lens,
generally, is required to determine its nature.

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 283

EVEI-OPMEIVT OF TBBE SILVER GAU («EI.O:VE I^OIVGIROSTRIS),
WlTai «>i;SEB5VATIONS 0:V THE OEIVESm OF THE liTOOS) 1^ KITI-
RRV(» FINED ES, AIVt> A C'OMrAKISOIV OF FISH OVA WITH T«IOSE OF

oo'iiEii vekti:brates.

By JOIIIV A. RYD£R.

The development of the fish we are about to describe is in itself of
little practical importance, but because it serves to illustrate in a very
remarkable way the manner in which the blood is originated in an embryo
teleosteau, it may serve to teach us a useful lesson as to the origin of
the elements of the blood in other forms, such as the salmon, whitefish,
&c., a complete knowledge of which it is desirable that we should pos-
sess, in order that we may more fully comprehend the evolution of their
structures in the egg'. Another matter of peculiar interest is the pres-
ence of numerous filaments which are distributed over the whole sur-
face of the very thick egg-membrane, and which are at first tightly
coiled around the latter, but which afterwards uncoil, when they twist
together into strands, and also become entangled with the filaments
arising from other eggs so as to bind large numbers together into large
clusters, is^ot only are large masses of one brood thus joined together,
but it is also found that if the recently spawned ova come into contact
with slender objects in the sea they immediately wind their filaments
about the latter, and are by this means suspended very securely, so
that with the ebb and flow of the tides they are constantly bathed by
difierent water. It appears that in this way their incubation would be
favored, for after their fixation by the filaments or threads, the ebb and
flux of the tide sweeping through and by the clusters of eggs would in
eflect very closely resemble the conditions to which fish ova are ex-
posed in ihe process of artificial incubation. It would seem that in this
case nature had anticipated the protectire designs of man in develop-
ing a means by which the survival of a species might be insured. How
the filaments have been evolved it appears impossible to the writer to
explain; he can think of no rational hypothesis of evolution by which
it would be possible to account for their development. AVhile the ova
of a comparatively useless fish are thus provided with a means of pro-
tection and suspension, not only to favor their incubation, but also to
keep them from being overwhelmed with the ooze and mud of the sea-
bottom, there are other species of considerable value, the eggs of which
are probably provided with similar thread-like appendages. I allude
to the so-called "jumping-mullet," Muyil albula, a fish much esteemed
lor the table in some places along our eastern coast. It therefore be-
comes a matter of some importance to know how many of our native
species have their ova provided with filaments for the purpose of at-
taching them to each other and to foreign objects.

Professor Haeckel appears to have been the first to describe fish ova

284 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

"witli filaments, but lie tliouglit the fibers were inside the egg-membrane
instead ol' outside of it, as may be learned by reference to his paper on
the subject in AlUller^s Archiv for 1855. Professor Kolliker, in the Ver-
handl. d. 2)hysik. u. med. Gesellschaft in Wiirzhurgj eighth volume, for
1858, rectifies Ilaeckel's observations, and shows that the fibers or fila-
ments are external, but it does not appear that he ever understood their
real function, viz, to provide a means of fixation and support while the
ova were undergoing incubation. Haeckel unfortunately observed only
uurii^e ova, contrary to what he supposed, as is clearlj- shown by his
figures, but he found the fibers present in the eggs of Belone, Scomber-
esox, Hemirhamphus, and Exocoetus. The writer has observed them in
the unripe eggs of Hemirhamphus iinifasciatus, but has not had any op-
portunity to observe them in the egga of the tlying-fish, Exocoetus. In
all of these the fibers are distributed and attached at intervals over the
whole surface of the egg, but in the Atherinidce, as shown by my ob-
servations on the eggs of Chirostoma notata in Mobjack Bay, Virginia,
in 1880, there are only four filaments, which are attached to the
vitelline membrane at one i>ole of the egg and quite close together.
These are at first coiled around the vitelline membrane in one i)Iane
quite closely, as in Belone, but they unwind when the eggs are dis-
charged into the water, when the threads of adjacent eggs become en-
tangled so as to form clusters of considerable size. In this genus the
filaments are nearly half an inch long, without a swollen base, attached
to an. egg one-sixteenth of an inch in diameter. We saw that all of the
genera of Scomheresocidoe were found to have their ova provided with
filaments. The genus Arrhamphus is the only one the eggs of which
have not been observed. It is very probalile that all of the genera of
Atherinidw have ova with filamentous processes ; at any rate it is desir-
able that they should be looked for in Atherina, Athennichtliys, Teira-
gonurus, and Labidesthcs. This sui)position also raises the question
whether the MugUidce do not have eggs of the same kind. A confirma-
tion of this hypothesis would be desirable in that the large number of
species in the family, their wide distribution and considerable size, con-
spire to render them of value as food-fishes over a large area of the
earth's surface. It is quite as important for us to know what natural
means exist to favor the survival of the germs of species as it is for us
to know what artificial means to provide for their increase and i>rotec-
tion. In fact the latter kind of knowledge ought to be based upon and
sui)plement the former, since it is by a combination of natural ami arti-
ficial protective agencies that much more can be done to increase the
number of food-fishes than by the latter alone. It may indeed happen
that we Avill yet learn that certain species need no protection save that
which would prevent their capture during the breeding season.

DEVELOPMENT.

The development of the germinal disk of the silver gar is essentially
like that of the Spanish mackerel and the cod. The egg is quite large,

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 285

measuring when mature about one-seventh of an inch in diameter. After
impregnation the egg does not increase mucli in size in consequence of
the absorption of water from without, as in the case of the eggs of the
shad and whitefish. The vitellus, in consequence of this, lies ahnost in
contact with the egg-membrane, as shown in Fig. 1. The egg -membrane
is without pore canals, and is therefore not a zona radiata like that of the
shad and salmon. ]t is about -^^ of an inch in thickness, which is
more than six times that of the zona radiata of the shad egg. The
fibers or filaments which arise from the surface of the egg are cylindri-
cal and taper towards their free extremities. The attached end of the
fiber is swollen into a truncated cone, which is joined to the surface of
the egg-membrane by its base. From the truncated apex of the cone
the fiber arises, and a very distinct transverse line indicates the point
where the former joins the latter. The fibers may be forcibly pulled off
of the membrane; when this is done a slight concave depression remains
on the surface of tlie latter, marking the point of attachment of the con-
ical base of the filament or thread. The thickness of the threads is
about the same as that of the egg-membrane, and they are apparently
composed of the same material, as indicated by their color and behavior
towards reagents. An examination of the ovaries of different females
in various stages of maturity reveals the fact that the fibers are tightly
coiled about the egg-membrane in the immature condition in the ova-
rian follicles, and that they are also wound round the globular egg in
but one plane, which we may designate as the equatorial plane. This
appears to be the tendency of the fibers on the eggs of other Scomber-
esocoids as well as in Chirostoma. After extrusion the fibers on the egg
uncoil and stand out, looped and twisted together in all directions, a«
shown in Fig. 1. The length of the fibers varies, but it does not usually
much exceed the diameter of the egg.

The ovary of the silver gar is a very long, simple cylindrical pouch,
A^arying in size and length very greatly, according to the degree of ma-
turity of its contents, which are discharged by way of a wide oviduct
opening behind the vent. The ovary when quite mature is sometimes
a foot in length and nearly an inch in diameter. As usual in fishes the
male is notably smaller than the female, and the milt or spermary is a
simple, elongate, somewhat peculiarly lobulated, three-sided organ, ex-
tending, like the ovary in the female, for the greater part of the length
of the body cavity; it empties its products into the water through a
wide sperm duct behind the vent. The genesis of the spermatozoa is
effected in much the same way as in the Spanish mackerel, as is shown
by sections of the organ in my possession.

As in many other teleostean fishes the germinal protoplasm of the ma-
ture egg covers the vitellus as a thin envelope; in the egg of Belone it is
extremely thin, but there is a great number of very transparent, refrin-
gent, minute vesicles scattered through this germinal pellicle, which is
of uniform thickness over the whole vitellus. It has occurred to me that

286 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

inasmuch as tbe vesicles in the germinal pellicle disappear when the lat-
ter has been aggregated into the germinal disk, may it not be that they
represent the fragments of the disintegrated nnclens? This view, how-
ever, as already stated in my paper on the Spanish maclierel, is nega-
tived by the results obtained in staining the germinal i)ellicle of the cod
eggj where these vesicles remain untinged. No oil spherules are visi-
V)le in the vitellus, the latter being optically homogeneous. The whole
egg is heavier than the sea- water, and quickly sinks to the bottom ; its.
specific gravity must therefore be much greater than that of the shad or
salmon.

The germinal disk is developed in the usual way by the aggregation
of the germinal i^rotoiilasm of the pellicle, which covers the vitellus at
one pole of the latter. It does not appear that impregnation certainly
takes place before the formation of the germinal disk. Observations on
this point are, however, still too scanty and untrustworthy to be of
much value, and until special attention is directed towards tbis point
it will be most commerulable to maintain a skeptical silence in regard
to the views held on this subject. Special apparatus is needed to con-
duct researches on the phenomena of impregnation of fish ova, supple-
mented by reagents which will act quickly, so as to fix the nuclear
changes which occur almost Instantly. We may then study the condi-
tions presented by different stages in dead preparations which have
been i)roi)erly stained so as to develop the appearance of the nucleus,
as little of a trustworthy nature can be learned from any of the twenty
species of living eggs which the writer has seen, for in almost all cases
the nuclei of living fish eggs are not visible under the microscope, even
though magnifying powers of two hundred and fifty diameters be ap-
plied. With the use of reagents the matter is much simplified, the
nuclei at once become distinct, and their metamorphoses may be very
distinctly shown under a power of sixty to seventy-five diameters.

In Fig. 1 the germinal disk three hours and twenty-three minutes
after impi-egnation has been segmented into eight cells ; at the end of
four hours and forty-five miiuites it has been segmented into sixteen
cells, as shown in Fig. 2. The disk during this time has not increased
in transverse diameter, and is relatively smaller, when compared with
the vitellus, than the germinal disk of the salmon. It is very transpa-
rent, and is less diifereut from the vitellus in color and optical proper-
ties than the disk of any fish egg known to rae. It is this feature which
makes it hard to find in the live egg, and when found difficult to study,
unless the light is skillfully managed so as to bring out the contours of
its component cells. The nuclei are still quite invisible in the latter
while alive. The stages which immediately follow are still more difli-
cult to study, because as the disk spreads to form the blastoderm it
becomes relatively thinner and more inconspicuous than in any other
lorm known to me, so that it is necessary to manipulate the light in the
microscope with extreme caution.

BULLETIN OP THE UNITED .STATES FISH COMMISSION. 287

By the tenth hour the segmentation of the disk has advanced very
much, and the cleavage of the component cells has proceeded so as to
have split them up into superimposed layers lying in the plane of the
great diameter of the disk, as shown in Fig. 3. Besides the develop-
ment ot superimposed layers of cells by another process, which I do
not clearly understand, a portion of the germinal matter of the disk has
been segmented off at its margin to form a wreath, tv, of much depressed
cells, which seem to be severed from the edge of the disk proper by a
slight interval all the way round. These appear to take an important
share in the development of the thick rim of cells r, which limits the
border of the blastoderm after it has spread out somewhat, as indicated
in Figs. 4, 5, and G. Up to the tenth hour of development the disk has
expanded but slightly; it now measures about one twenty-lifth of an
inch in transverse diameter, exclusive of the wreath of marginal cells,
or about the same as in the stage represented in Fig. 1. In Fig. 3 it is,
however, lenticular, convex above and below, and it is only during the
next twelve hours that it begins to spread, become of almost uniform
thickness, convex above and concave below. The singular changes un-
dergone by the disk of the cod were not so narrowly observed in this
species, although they probably occur. What is alluded to is the change
from the biscuit-shape of the morula stage, with a thick. margin and
almost flat upper and lower surfaces, to^the lenticular form of Fig. 3,
which is viewed somewhat obliquely, to that of the concavo-convex
form, which is alre;;dy assumed somewhat earlier.

With the lateral expansion of the disk, the segmentation cavity sc is
developed beneath the upper germinal layers, which constitute its roof.
Here, as in other forms studied by the writer, this cavity does not disap-
pear, but persists and expands laterally as the growth of the blastoderm
proceeds. In Goregonus albus the cavity is principally roofed over by
the epiblast, which is composed of flattened, juxtaposed cells, while
smaller, rounded cells constitute its imperfect floor. The cells of the
floor appear to have been budded off from the mesoblast near the edge
of the blastoderm. A similar state of affairs probably exists here, for
as yet I can flud no evidence of a positive character to show that we
have in Belone an exception to the mode of develoi)ment generally ex-
hibited by embryo fishes ; but this structural feature will be further con-
sidered, in relation to the genesis of the blood, at another place.

In Fig. 4 the embryo-swelling, which extends from e to the edge of
the blastoderm, is still in a verj' primitive condition. The cells, which
are to develop'into the bodj^ of the embryo, have not yet been arranged
into tracts, and little more than the upper or epiblast layer, with the
mesoblast lying below the latter, and above the hypoblast, can be said
to be ditt'erentiated. There is still no indication of a neural or primitive
groove; no differentiation of lateral mesoblastic plates, from which the
muscular segments or somites are to be dift'erentiated. Whether these
are lateral outgrowths, or diverticula from the hypoblast of the primitive

288 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES' FISH COMMISSION.

enteron or gut, as the latter is pushed inwards from behind, we are not
yet ready to assert, but such a mode of origin appears possible, if not
probable. By the end of the first twenty -four hours of development
the germinal disk measures almost a line across, as shown in Fig. 4, and
the part of it from Avliich the body of the embryo will be developed is
the widened portion of the blastodermic rim r, just below e. The colls
composing the disk at this stage are already too small to be successfully
represented in figures of the size we have adopted, consequently the
blastodermic rim and embryonic portion of it will hereafter be merely
more densely dotted.

In Fig. 5 the disk or blastoderm is represented at thirty-one hours and
twenty minutes after the commencement of development ; it now meas-
ures about a tenth of an inch across, but is still extremely thin and has
apparently added nothing to its substance by an incorporation of any
of the imderlying yelk. The blastoderm is here again viewed somewhat
obliquely, in consequence of which the rudiment of the embryo c appeals
to have its head end inclined to the right hand. The embryonic rudi-
ment is relatively small, much more so than in other forms in the samie
stage of development. When the blastoderm is viewed from the edge
in the living state, as a transparent object lying at one side of the vitel-
lus, the segmentation cavity sc is found to be exceedingly shallow ver-
tically, but its lumen may still^be distinguished. The embryo, however,
is much more clearly marked than in Fig. 4; it is more prominent and is
rapidly growing in length from the rim. towards the center of the blas-
toderm. This brings us to the consideration of the growth in length of
the embryo from the edge of the blastoderm. I am inclined to believe
that the theory ]Hit forward by liallbur (Comparative Embryology, II,
254) must be accepted with considerable qualiticatiou, as stated by him
in the following language : " The growth in length takes place by a
process of intussusception, and, till there are formed the full number of
mesoblastic somites, it is effected, as in Chietopods, by the continual
addition of tresh somites between the last-formed soniite and the hind
end of the body." The only apparent exception to this rule is in Elecatc
canadus, where it aj^pears that the segmentation of the mesoblast on
either side of the neurala or spinal rervous cord is continued backwards
so as to involve the rim of the not yet closed blastoderm, and that the
somites of th# hind end of the body are formed by the coalescence of
the blastodermic rim in the median line continuous anteriorly with the
primitive groove. Should this be found to be the constant mode of de-
velopment in Eleeate^ it will be necessary to accept in 'part the view
urged by His and Ilauber. It is to be observed, however, that the
segmentation of the rim of the blastoderm in Elecate proceeds from
before backwards, and that while it extends beyond the posterior
extremity of the neural cord and notochord, the unusual segmentation
of the rim of the blastoderm behind the proper embryonic body into
muscular half segments may be a mere acceleration or hastening of the

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 289

usual mode. Sucli unusual acceleration or retardation in the develop-
ment of certain structures in various species of teleosts is not unusual,
and wonid be as likely to aftect the segmentation of the mesoblastic
blastodermic rim into muscular segments as any other part of the em-
bryo. There is another most serious objection to the unqualified accepta-
tion of Balfour's theory of the growth of the embryo from the edge of
the blastoderm without further addition from that source. If we do not
admit that the blastodermic rim becomes transformed into the body of
the embryo, what becomes of it? Nothing can be more certain than
that, ui)on its closure, little or nothing is left of it; it has apparently
been incori)orated into the embryo's body.

This view appears to be well sustained by what may be observed in
the development of Belone. Up to the time when the embryo may be
said to be fairly outliued as in Fig. 6, forty-three hours and forty min-
utes after impregnation, the material of the blastoderm and embryo has
acquired little or no increase of bulk in consequence of the incorporation
of portions of the massive yelk. In Fig. 6 we see that the embryonic
body occupies about a quarter of the circumference of the yelk. The
blastoderm has grown down over and inclosed more than half the yelk
globe, and its rim is contracting at the tail to comi)lete the closur6.
When this is accomplished, the point where the closure takes place en-
tirely diappears; the edges of the rim have been so perfectly fused
together that the point of union, marked at first by a pore behind the
end of the tail, with radiating wrinkles running out from it fifty-one
hours after development began, as shown in Figs. 8 and 10, has soon
after completely vanished. The material of the slowly contracting rim
is finally fused into a solid flat plate of cells at the caudal end of the
embryo, after the membranes of the latter — epiblast and hyi^oblast —
have inclosed the yelk. The conversion of this caudal plate into the
mesoblastic, epiblastic, and hyi)oblastic structures of the tail end of the
embryo accordingly appears to me to be beyond question. But I would
not commit mvself to an adherence to the doctrine that the embryonic
body was formed by a gradual coalescence of the thickened edge of the
blastoderm from before backwards along the median line. If the reader
will observe Fig. 9 he will see that the annular blastodermic rim r, as
it approximates the closed condition at the fifty-first hour, is not circu-
lar, as in Fig. 5, but decidedly oval. The sides of the oval blastodermic
annulus are now approximated more rapidly than the ends, as we see
still further exemplified in the oval pore like openings in Figs. 8 and 10.
It is, therefore, probably nearest to the truth to say that the embryo
grows in length both by intussusception from behind forwards of the
blastodermic rim as well as by the coalescence of the latter, not along
the median line, but by a gradual fnsion as it is finallv closed over the
yelk.

The segmentation of the mesoblast proceeds in the usual way in
Belone from before backwards, as shown in Fig. G at so, and there is no
Bull. U. S. F. C, 81 19 iriay 1 9, 1 8 8S,

290 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

reason to suppose that the somatic mesoblast extends much beyond the
sides of the body at this stage, but it ends abruptly on either side be-
tween the epiblast and sphmchnopleiu-e the same as in Alosa, as shown
by transverse sections. Fig. G shows the optic vesicles o developing at
the head end of the neural or spinal cord, which is solid in this species at
this time, as in embryo bony fishes generally. The notochord is also
faintly indicated at this stage. The vesicle 1c, the nature of which is so
puzzling, shown at the under side of the tail in Figs. G, 8, 9, and 10, is well
developed ; it was originally described by Kupffer, and it has been sup-
posed to be primitively joined to the posterior end of the intestine, but
of this there is as yet no satisfactory ])roof. It disappears entirely at a
later stage of the evolution of Belone, and appears to play only a tran-
sient and comparatively inconsequential j)art in the process of develop-
ment. The usual lateral flattening of the anterior end of the neural or
spinal cord takes place, as shown in Fig. 9, in optic section through it
and the optic vesicle on either side. Further stages in the development
of the optic vesicles are shown in Figs. 7 and 10, in which the rudiments
of the auditory invaginations are also represented. In Fig. 10 the em-
bryonic body only is represented, as in Fig. 9; the mesoblast has been
segmented into a greater number of muscular somites, and the point of
closure of the blastoderm is shown at the tail, where it forms the caudal
plate already alluded to.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE HEART AND BLOOD.

As stated at the beginning of this paper, the genesis of the blood of
Belone is perhaps the most interesting ])art of its history. The heart
develops in the usual way in the segmentation cavity below the head;
at first an annular mass of cells, it soon becomes tubular, and is pro-
longed forwards until its venous end a extends to the front end of the
head. An arterial channel is at once developed from its hinder end
through the body of the embryo between the notochord and intestine,
and just below the tail at z it widens into a capacious vessel of very
uneven caliber and passes entirely around over the yelk between the
epiblast and the hypoblast to again empty. its contents into the anterior
venous end of the heart at a. The vitelline blood-system is at this stage,
seventy-two hours after impregnation, as simple as it can possibly be.
It is a mere channel which is as yet hardly provided with proi>er walls,
except in the region of the heart and body, running the whole length
of the body of the young fish and continued around the yelk back to
the heart. On either side of the body of the embryo a small vessel also
makes its way outwards from the aortic channel or vessel, but suddenly
returns again to empty its fluid contents into the heart at a. This ves-
sel, or rather the one on the right side, is shown at v" in Fig. 11. With
the progress of development the most noteworthy change which takes
place in the arrangement of the two vessels on either side of the body
is their rapid extension and growth outwards over the yelk, as shown

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 291

at v', v", iu Fig. 12, ninety-four and a lialf hours after development had
begun. The bU)od corpuscles or disks at once begin to be formed, but
they do not appear to be uniformly oval at first, but very soon acquire
the red color characteristic of this tissue. The corpuscles have a tend-
ency to adhere together in clusters or clumps, and circulate in this way
in masses through the blood channels of the embryo, as shown in Fig.
11 at V. The blood channels soon develop' communicating branches,
and these are formed in a very interesting way, as represented iu Fig.
13. Narrow blind prolongations of the hollow vessels are formed at.
their sides and at each pulsation of the heart these are lengthened;
several of them are shown at c, e, c, Fig. 13. Frequently two such blind
prolongations meet and join, so that a communication is established be-
tween the larger channels. In this way the vascular network is devel-
oped over the yelk, as shown in Figs. 14 and 16. In Fig. 14, one hun-
dred and sixteen hours after impregnation, the vitelline vascular system
is moderately comi)lex ; there are three vascular channels, the right one,
v', the left one, v", and the median one, t\ all of which join and pour
their contents into the venous end of the heart at a. It may also be
observed that where the vessels cross the semi-diameter of the egg at
the side and where their cavities are seen in optic section, the epiblast
is lifted up to give them passage. Between the vessels at this stage
it was possible to observe in optic section here and there at the sides
of the vitellus the space between the epiblast and hypoblast, which
we have regarded as the remains of the i^ersistent segmentation cavity.
The heart space p, which in this as in other cases appears to be de-
rived from the segmentation cavity, becomes progressively more and
more spacious in the successive stages represented in Figs. 11, 12, 14, 15,
until it attains a most extraordinary development in Fig. 16, one hundred
and sixty-five and a half hours after impregnation. In Fig. 1 1 the heart
is tubular and not differentiated into regions; in Fig. 12 the ventricle
and venous sinus are beginning to be marked off from each other; in
Figs. 14 and 15 the bulbus aortie may be for the first time distinguished,
but in all of these phases the whole organ is dragged forward in the
median line far beyond the front of the head. In Fig. 16 the venous
end of the heart begins to be inclined downward, but is at the same
time very remarkably elongated; the bulbus aorttie ha is almost tubular
and the ventricle ve, almost globular, is held iu position to the fioor of
the heart cavity by a muscular or fibrous band, s. Below the ventricle
the greatly elongated tubular veuous sinus appears to be fastened by
diverging muscular bands to the lower part of the enormous heart space^.
The point of attach ment of the venous end of the heart in the lower por-
tion of the heart space is the scene of the very remarkable mode of gen-
esis of blood corpuscles of this species. Where the vessels v, v', v", in
Fig. 14, converge, it is already apparent that an active metamorphosis
of the yelk substance into blood disks is in progress. The first sign of
this has, however, already made its appearance in Fig. 11, where the

292 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

blood corpuscles are clearly derived by budding off from the inferior
Lypoblastic walls of the vitelline blood channels. Clusters of adherent,
not fully formed, blood disks are circulating en masse through the ves-
sels. Some of them appeared to be amoeboid in character. But the
process of blood formation is in its most active phase in Figs. 15 and
16, where the vitelline vessels converge :o join the heart. Here it was
observed that the vitellus was breaking up into clear globular corjius-
cles from -r^o to -^^ of an inch in diameter; the largest corpuscles were
always observed to be most deeply imbedded in the yelk, or most re-
mote from the vascular channel. A progressive segmentation of these
corpuscles was also observed, from which it was concluded that they
were directly concerned in the formation of the nucleated oval blood
disks. The rapid formation of blood disks in this region had the effect
of piling them up into great adheren ; masses about the venous end of
the heart, which was also more distinctly marked as the red color of the
ovoidal corpuscles became developed as hfiemoglobin was formed. The
pulsation of the heart would for a long time sway these masses of cor-
puscles back and forth, until finally one after the other would be de-
tached from the mass and carried along in the current of blood. Kot
only were the corpuscles budded off in this way into the blood channel
itself, but they were also found to be held in suspension in great num-
bers in the great heart space p^ where every pulsation of the heart
■would cause them to vibrate in the surrounding serous fluid. At the
upper part of the heart chamber great lumibers of blood disks were
found to be collected together below and in front of the origin of the
breast fin /. The hyi^oblastic origin of the blood in this species is
therefore undoubtedly a fact, as was learned from repeated observation;
■whether the hypoblast was more than the intermediary parent of the
blood disks I am not in a position to state, but this was probably the
case, for as the hypoblastic structures w ere broken down into corpuscles
in the blood-forming region at the venous end of the heart, there ap-
peared to be a constant renewal of germinating cells from below which
"were clearly derived from the yelk. The actual phenomenon of cleavage
of the cells was not observed since the nuclei were relatively indistinct,
and their genesis at this point was assumed to be undoubted from the
constant!}" augmenting numbers which were developed independently
of any which might accumulate in consequence of eddies in the blood
current. The blood disks themselves were not measured, but as com-
pared with the size of the corpuscles from which they were derived they
■were estimated to measure somewhat less than 3^0 of an inch in their
greatest diameter.

What may lie beyond the stage represented in Fig. IG I am not able
to say, as we were unable to keep the eggs in a healthy state after this
jieriod. The species was found in abundance, in spawning condition,
at Cherrystone during July and August last, and I take this occasion
to express my appreciation of the assistance of Colonel McDonald and

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 293

Messrs. Saiierlioft" and Walke, who were instriiinental iu obtainiug the
eggs which were the subjects of the foregoiug study.

But a few more points iu relation to the development of other portions
of the embryo may, ])erliaps, profitably engage our attention. It will be
noticed tliat there are over eighty muscular segments or somites repre-
sented in the body of the embryo show^u in the egg in Fig. 11. This very
large number is unusual in bony fishes at this stage of development;
less than half as many are to be observed in the young shad, cod, or
mackerel at the same stage. In explanation of this difierence we can
only suggest that, since the muscular somites of the adult silver gar
are vastly more numerous than those of the three aforementioned
species, we should expect the number in the embryo Belone to exceed
those of the other species at a very early period, which is found to be
the fact.

The breast fins / are developed early ; the first rudiment api)ears in
Fig. 11, and they increase in size progressively from that stage onwards ;
at the same time they are gradually pushed farther forwards, and their
bases assume a vertical position as in Fig. 16.

The vent x^ with the growth and prolongation of the tail backwards,
communicates with the exterior of the body, as shown in Figs. 11 and
16. The iutes ine extends forwards from it, but the mouth will appar-
ently not be developed until considerable progress has been made beyond
the stage represented iu Fig. 16. There is an embryonic urinary vesicle
or bladder, 6, behind and above the vent, which is connected with the
segmental ducts anteriorly. The liver is still but slightlj^ developed.

The mid-brain is the most massively developed portion of the neu-
rula, and consists of a pair of large, flattened, saccular outgrowths,
which are developed from the upp<'r w^all of the second cerebral vesicle,
which partly cover the cerebellum behind antl the lower part of the
brain at the sides. The cavity inside the brain is spacious in the em-
bryos of Belone, as is indicated in Figs. 12 and 14; the primary vesicles
are as yet but little modified in our latest stage.

Of the history of the development of the unpaired fins, these stages
tell us but very little, but there was a slight dorsal and ventral nata-
tory fold developed on the tails of the oldest embryos.

Of the relations of mesoblast to that of the hypoblast and epiblast,
we clearly know that the mesoblast of the muscular somites ends
abruptly on either side of the body between the upper and lower em-
bryonic layers. In Fig. 14 the epiblast and hypoblast are indicated by
two diverging lines which end at the sides of the body just in front of
the breast fins. 1 his figure show^s in optic section the space between
epiblast and hypoblast which runs along the whole length on either
side of the body of the embryo. The epiblast amounts up over and
covers the embryonic body consisting of the muscular mesoblast, spinal
cord and brain, or neurula, and the notochord, segmental tubes and
intestine; the hypoblast on the other hand passes beneath all of these.

294 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

The great bulk of the body is therefore inclosed between the epiblast
and liypobliist; the segmentation cavity extends in reality all round the
embryo's body up to the point where the mesoblast ends, and from this
point all round the yelk between the epiblast and hypoblast after the
latter has been enveloped by the blastoderm. Usually the mesoblast
is freed from contact with the hypoblast for some distance beneath the
head; in the si)ace which results the heart is developed as a ventral
mesoblastic outgrowth of cells annular at first, tubular at last, and .soon
divided into three principal chambers separated by two constrictions,
which are not at first truly valvular. The space around the yelk is now
continuous with the heart space or pericardiac cavitj-; the latter is in-
deed a part of the segmentation cavity ; into this space the blood cor-
puscles of Belone are budded Irom the yelk through the intermediation
of the hypoblast inclosing the latter. The vessels themselves appear to
be intimately related to the hypoblast, and appear indeed to be placed
between it and the epiblast, but to make their progress mainly along
the former, plowing channels through it and the adjacent yelk. I'he
mode of forcing or breaking open channels from one vessel to another
over the yelk of Belone is well shown in Fig. 13, where the blind begin-
nings of vessels are arising at c, c, (?, and two such from the Inrger ves-
sels have met and joined but d short time since so as to connect the
larger channels together. The median vessel which traverses the yelk
is fed by the caudal vein behind; the lateral venous arcs v' ^'", on the
other hand, are fed directly from the cardinal veins.

It is a verj- significant fact that the segmentation cavity plays a very
important part in the process of the formation of the blood and the in-
corporation of the yelk into the body of the embryo. There is no more
reason whj' the segmentation cavity should disappear in the germinal
disk of the fish-egg than in the segmenting egg of the amphibian, where
it actually is as intimately concerned in the formation of the heart as in
the fish, according to the evidence of the plates of A. Goette's classical
Ent'wickelungsgeschichte der Unl-e, but this, I am aware, is not that em-
bryologist's view of the matter. Kupflfer* has advanced another view
which it is important to notice in this connection, as it is very diiferent
from the one advanced by the writer in the foregoing pages. He sup-
poses that there is a mesoblastic layer surrounding the yelk besides the
epiblast and hypoblast, and which lies between the two latter. The
blood, according to him, originates by g-ermination from the hypoblast
between the latter and the mesoblast. The origin of the heart is de-
scribed essentially in the same way as it has been observed by the
writer. Kupfter in all his writings has, however, completely overlooked
the tact that the segmentation cavity of the fish-egg persists, and he
was not, therefore, in a position to estimate its importance in relation,
to the development of the blood. As to the mesoblastic layer said to

*Beobachtuugcu iiber die Eutwickelimg der Kuochenfisclie. Arch. f. mik. Anat.
■IV, 1868.

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 295

intervene between the liypoblastic and ei)il»lastic layers whieli cover
the yelk, sections throngh whole ova in varions stages of development
have thus far fiiiled to show its existence, except in the salmon, in which
it is quite evident in sections of advanced embryos. Even in the latter
I am not sure that it extends entirelj' over the yelk, ffillacher has ap-
parently understood the relations of the segmentation cavity much in the
same Avay as the writer, except as to the heart.

COMPARISON OF THE TELEOSTEAN OVUM WITH THAT OF OTHER VER-
TEBRATES.

A comparison of the different types of vertebrate ova will be useful
as leading to a clearer compreliension of the true nature of the yelk in
the teleostean egg. The eggs of the common frog {Eana) and Bomhi-
nator undergo total segmentation in the process of development. There
is no distinct vitellus or yelk, and the yelk of the fish egg is apparently
not homologous with any part of the amphibian ovum. There is, how-
ever, an almost complete homology between the germinal disk and blas-
toderm of the fish and the whole of the amphibian egg. The complete-
ness of the homology is impaired only by the peculiar way in which the
neurula or brain and spinal cord and the intestine are developed in the
fish. The fish Qgg may be regarded as the frog's ovum plus a large
store of food, which may be either homogeneous or heterogeneous, and
which at first takes absolutely no share in the process of segmentation.
If it were possible to place a frog's egg on a sphere of protoplasm sev-
eral times its own size and cause it to spread out and gradually grow
over the latter so as to comi)letely inclose it and yet develop perfectly,
the condition which obtains in the fish ovum would be very nearly at-
tained for the amphibian. The segmentation cavity, which appears in
the germinal disk at an early stage of develox)ment of the fish, is per-
fectly homologous with a similar cavity in the egg of the amphibian,
except that in the fish, instead of remaining a simple cavity it has been
so greatly modified by the peculiar way in which the disk of cells in
which it is contained is obliged to spread and grow over and around the
yelk that it is at first not easy to see a likeness between the two types.
The development of the tailed Batrachians and of the Lampreys is very
similar to that of the frog, and their ova undergo total segmentation.
The development of the ova of the genus Lepidosteus is probably not
essentially dilierent from those of the typical teleostean. The process
of spreading and inclosure of the yelk hj the blastoderm has not been
observed in the bony gar, but, as far as I am able to judge from the
account given by Balfour {Comp. Emhryol. ii, 91-98), a segmentation
cavity is probably formed, and the diflerentiation of the embryonic lay-
ers is apparently not essentially different from the same processes as
observed in teleosts by A^arious persons besides the writer. Fig. 58 in
the work just referred to, and relied upon by Balfour to shosv the seg-
mentation of the egg of Lepidosteus^ apiDears to me to be taken from

296 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

a specimen preserved iu alcohol, in which that reagent has produced
the appearance of partial segra^utatiou of the j^elk. The germinal disk
is represented above with the surface of the cells flattened, probably by
the contraction of the egg membrane in a preservative fluid. The yelk
of teleosts, as in tlie egg of Elecate, for example, is sometimes apjjarently
di\ided iuto large cells, but such they are really not; they are merely
homogeneous masses of protoplasm involved in a diflerent kind of yelk
protoplasm. To sum up the matter, the comparatively full account of
the later development of Lepidosteus given by Balfour, and our lack of
knowledge in regard to the stages immediately' following the segmenta-
tion of the germinal disk and attending the formation of the cleavage
cavity and blastoderm, lead me to conclude that it is probable that it
will be found upon further investigation that the develo])uient of that
form is almost identical with that of the ordinary teleostean type.

The development of the sturgeon when compared with the teleostean
differs from the latter mainly in the way in which the yelk is inclosed
by the intestine. This is certainly anomalous and not a little puzzling,
as it is the only vertebrate type yet known in which such an extraor-
dinary state of affairs has been shown to exist, and it is desirable that
this observation of Salensky's should be confirmed in our common
American species. The development of the germinal disk and blasto-
derm, from the account given of it by Kowalewsky, Owsjannikow, and
Wagner* does not differ essentially from that seen in the teleostean e,gg.
There is the same gradual envelopment and inclosure of the yelk by a
blastoderm with a thick rim, which makes the statements to the effect
that the segmentation is total appear at first to be founded upon doubt-
ful evidence 5 even Balfour admits that it "approaches the mesoblastic
type more nearly than the segmentation of the frog's f'.g'^.^'' The ])oint
where the blastopore closes appears to be the homologue of the anus
of Rusconi in the frog's 'd\^^, which is not the case in either the teleos-
tean or Lepidosteus. The three ichthyan types, however, appear to
agree i)retty closely in the formation of the segmental organs, muscle
segments, notochord, heart, and brain. In the blastoderm of the stur-
geon there is apparently a thick rim as in the teleostean, which is
mainly mesoblastic, and which in all probability contributes towards
the formation of the caudal i)late, and the posterior muscular seg-
ments, as in the latter. The segmentation cavity, according to the fig-
ures of Kowalewsky, Owsjannikow, and Wagner, ai)i)ears to be persist-
ent as in the teleost, and, if Salensky's representations are to be trusted,
it probably enters into the formation, not only of the body cavity, but
also that of the heart.

The principal difference between the blastoderm of the typical teleos-
tean ovum and that of the Elasmobranch apj)ears to arise from the
mode in ^Ivhich the germinal disk continues .to spread over the yelk for
some time after the embryo has been formed and raised above the lat-

""^ *Billlelm de rAciid. luip. desSci. dc- St. Petersburg, XIV. 318-3-^5. Ib70.

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 297

ter upon an umbilical stalk, so that the portion of the blastodermic rim
which still remains, but is separated liom the embryo, and which will
finally coalesce some distance behind the umbilical stalk, is probably
not homologous with any i)art of the rim of the blastoderm of the teleos-
teau. It is clear, at any rate, that this part of the rim of the blasto-
derm of the Elasmobranch takes no share in the formation of the cau-
dal plate, and indirectly of the tail end of the body, as happens in the
teleost. To urge the example of tlie Elasmobranch blastoderm, as
Balfour has done, in refutation of the arguments of His and Eauber in
relation to the part taken by the blastodermic rim of the germinal
membranes of the teleost in the formation of the body, is therefore
hardly fair.

As already stated in my paper on the development of the Spanish
mackerel, the teleostean ovum is remarkable for the way in which the
superficial layer or ijellicle of germinal protoplasm, destined to form the
germinal disk, migrates towards one pole of the vitellus to aggregate
into a biscuit-shaped germ-mass. The process has been studied by the
writer in detail in the egg of the cod ( Gadus), where, owing to the low
temperature of the water in which the eggs develop, it requires some
time for its completion, so that it may be studied very minutely. It
appears that the nucleus undergoes disintegration or rearrangement in
the fish ovum before it leaves the ovarian follicle in which it grew.
The nucleus in young ova is observed to be embedded in the center of
the ovum ; as the latter acquires maturity it migrates toward the sur-
face and its contents are apparently broken uj) to be involved partly or
wholly in the peripheral germinal protoplasm. In some teleostean ova it
appears that the germinal disk is formed at the time of oviposition, but
this is not the case in any of the species studied by the wi^^ter. In the
cod, for examjjle, the germinal disk was not formed until about four hours
after impregnation. In this sj^ecies, as well as in BeJone and Ci/hium, the
germinal layer of protoplasm from which the germinal disk is developed
is a distinct external layer enveloping the true vitelline protoplasm.
It appears that in some species this peripheral layer of protoplasm is con-
nected with the interior of the vitellus by strands or i^rocesses of itself
which pass inwards between the vitelline corpuscles, often forming an
intricate investing matrix in which the latter are embedded. Notwith-
staudiug all these modifications, however, the portion of the ovum which
is directly inlluenced bj" the act of impregnation is the germinal disk alone,
which in turn has been derived from the external germinal pellicle. The
vitellus is, throughout the whole of development, passive ; as the embryo
is developed, the heart, through the intermediation of the segmentation
cavity and blood vessels, becomes, in part, the means by which it is ab-
sorbed, the process being assisted by the formation of free nuclei in its
substance as well as by germination, and, iierhaps, by intussusception
or absorption by the overlying hypoblast itself. The theory of the in-
termediarij layer proposed by the writer, in the essay on the develop-

298 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

ment of the Spanish mackerel, in which it was assumed to be derived from
the germinal pellicle, simplifies our theory of the constitution of the tel-
eostean ovum. But I find myself unable to clearly determine its pres-
ence, as understood by Van Bambeke, in some forms, as iu Belone and
Alosa, for example. This layer may retain in it some part of the origi-
nal nuclear matter of the egg, which may be the effective agent in re-
ducing and effecting the incorporation of the substance of the vitellus
by the formation of free nuclei ffom part of the original nuclear sub-
stance which has remained in the intermediary layer, which is immedi-
ately in contact with the yelk. But I have shown good reasons, as they
have appeared to me, for regarding the intermediary layer as really
equivalent to the hypoblast. If this view be sustained, and na evidence
to the contrary derived from sections made during the early stages has
yet been brought to light, either by the researches of myself or others,
it would appear that we may rightfully maintain that the blastoderm of
the fish is the homologue of the whole of the amphibian or marsipobranch
ovum, and that the yelk has been superadded and is not directly con-
cerned in the process of development, at least not until about the time
the tail of the embryo begins to be budded out, shortly after which the
heart is developed and begins to pulsate. The migration of the nucleus
of the teleostean egg, towards the surface and apparently into the per-
ipheral germinal matter is, I apprehend, a very different thing from
what occurs in the ova of the lamprey and frog, though upon comparison
they present a superficial resemblance. The behavior of the ovum of
the sturgeon, according to Salensky, appears to be similar to that of the
teleost in respect to the formation of the germinal disk; the nucleus, too,
seems to undergo disintegration into fragments.

Summari2;ing the arguments presented in the foregoing pages the
following conclusions appear to me to be warranted:

1. The germinal disk of the teleostean &gg is homologous with the
whole of the am[)hibian and marsipobranch ovum.

2. The yelk, while it is in intimate organic union with the blastoderm,
may be regarded merely as a nutritive appendage to the teleostean egg
from the center of which the nucleus has migrated at about the end of
intraovarian development into the germinal pellicle or disk, leaving the
yelk a passive structure, the presence of which has greatly modified the
mode of development of the blastoderm.

3. The rim of the blastoderm is more or less extensively transformed
into the body of the embryo as argued by His and Eauber.

4. The difference between the development of the ganoids and teleosts
is much less than between the former and amphibians.

5. The blood in Belone is developed directly from the yelk through
the intermediation of the hypoblast, quantities of its corpuscles being
found in the heart or pericardiac chamber.

6. The intestine of the teleost embryo is formed from behind forwards
by splitting of the hypoblast, and not by ah invagination conterminous

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 299

boliind with the iieurula or spinal canal, as in the Amphibian and Mar-
sii>obranch, and there no evidence to show that the point where the rim
of the blastoderm closes is comparable to a blastopore, or to the auns of
Rusconi.

7. The gastrula of the teleost is extremely modified on account of the
extreme flattening and epibolic mode of growth of the blastodeim over
the yelk, but tlie type of development is, in reality, similar to that where
there is a neurenteric canal developed as in embryo sharks, lampreys,
and frogs, since the vent is always broken through long before the
mouth, and there is a strand of cells representing the neurenteric canal.

8. The blastoderm of the teleost may be regarded as a very depressed
concavo-convex hollow sack resting on the yelk, the hollow space beneath
it representing the persistent cleavage cavity. One side of the blasto-
dermic disk or sack is filled with mesoblast cells, from which the somato-
pleure and splanchuoplenre are derived, where the embryo is formed;
the intestinal lumen is, at first, a narrow transverse split in the hypo-
blast which extends forward, eventually prolonging the enteric cavity
beneath the head.

9. The uppermost or epiblastic layer of the blastoderm, several cells
deep, roofs over the cleavage cfivity, the hypoblast forms its floor, the
rim of the blastoderm contains mesoblastic cells, which, as the germinal
membranes close over the yelk form the caudal-plate which is continuous
on either side with the medullary or muscle-plates at the sides of the body
of the embryo. The caudal-plate eventually enters into the formation
of the tail and caudal muscular mesoblastic somites, its hyi^oblast into
the formation of the anal end of the intestine.

10. The cause of the at first flattened lumen of the intestine is probably
to be sought in the very depressed and modified type of blastoderm of the
teleostean, which diflers widely' from that of all other vertebrates. The
lumen of the intestine gradually becomes round.

The embryo develops at the edge of the blastoderm in Teleosts,
Elasmobranchs, and Ganoids, but only a small portion of the blasto-
dermic rim appears to be appropriated to form the embryo in the Elas-
mobranch. This eccentric develojuuent of the embryo is in strange
contrast with that of the Amphibian and Lamjjrey, and not less so
when compared with the mode of development of reptiles, birds, and
mammals where the embryo develops in the center of the blastoderm,
and where the yelk, when present, ai3i)ears to be merely nutritive and
accessory, as in the teleostean egg. Only in the case of Zoarces is there
an approach toward the formation of an umbilical stalk, according to
Ratlike, but even there it is not developed until some time after the
blastoderm has closed over the yelk.

300 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

EXPLANATION OF KEFERENCE LETTERS USED IN THE PLATES.

a. Venous eucl or sinus of heart.

b. Uriuary vesicle or bladder.
ha. Bulbus aorlaj of heart.

c. Bliud capillarj' prolougatious from the larger blood-vessels on the surface of the
yelk.

e. Head end of developing embryo.
/. Rudiment of breast tin.
g. Germinal disk.
k. Kuptfer's vesicle.

0. Optic vesicles ; rudiments of the eye-balls.
p. Pericardiac or heart space.
r. Thickened rim of blastoderm.

8. Muscular or elfistic baud binding the ventricle to the floor of the heart space.
»c. Segmentation caviiy.
V. Median vitelline blood-vessel.
v' v". Right and left vitelline blood-vessels.
ve. Ventricle of the heart.

«'. Wreath of cells around the germinal disk which enter into the formation of i)art
of the blastodermic rim r.
X. Vent or anus.
z. Point where the caudal vein pr sses into the median vitelline blood-vessel.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XIX.

S^'All of the figures except 13 and 15 are enlarged twenty-one and a third times
the natural size.

Fig. 1. — Egg of the silver gar in its membrane, with the tentacular filaments at-
tached to its surface, S hours and 23 minutes after impregnation. The germinal disk
g at its upper pole has been segmented into 8 cells.

Fig. 2. — Germinal disk, 4f hours after impregnation, divided into 16 cells.

Fig. 3. — Germinal disk, 10 "hours after impregnation, showing the formation of a
wreath of cell, w, round its margin.

Fig. 4. — Blastoderm of silver gar, viewed from above, 24 hours after impregnation
to show the form and extent of the segmentation cavity.

Fig. 5. — Blastoderm of silver gar, viewed from above and obliquely, 31 hours and
20 minutes after impregnation, showing the body of the embryo budding out from the
edge of the blastodermic rim.

Fig. 6. — Blastoderm nearly inclosing the vitellus, 43 hours and 40 minutes after im-
pregnation, eyes o, muscular segments so and Kupfl:er's vesicle k are developed.

Figs. 7 and 8. — Head and tail ends of embryos, 51 hours after impregnation.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XX.

Fig. 9. — Embryo silver gar with the head seen in optic section, the tail end and
the conjoined oval blastodermic rim seen through the transparent vitellus, which is
not represtnted, 51 hours after impregnation.

Fig. 10. — Embryo one hour later, represented without the vitellus, the number of
muscular stigments has greatly increased in number, and the blastoderm has closed
over the yelk.

Fig. 11. — Embryo silver gar, seen from the side as a transparent object, 70 hours
after impregnation. The tail is about to begin to bud out behind, the heart is formed
but is still tubular, and a vessel passes forward around the yelk back to the tail and
on forward through the body to the hind end of the heart. The direction of the blood

Bull. F. C, vol. l.-liydcT.— Silver Gar.

PLATE XIX.

Tylosukl^s longieostris.

Btdl. F. C, vol. I.— Ryder.— -SiJuer Gar.

PLATE XX.

Tylosurus longfrostris.

Bull. F. C, vol. I.— RydcT.— Silver Gar.

PLATE XXI.

Ttlosukus longirostris.

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 301

current is from the bead to the tail. There are already over 80 muscular segments
formed, and the hreast-fm is developing at/.

Fig. r2.— Embryo, 94^ hours okl, viewed as a transparent object. The uotochord
is shown as a broad bbick line, and the lateral yelk-vessels v' v" are much more de-
veloped than in Fig. 11.

Fig. 1:3. — Diagram to show the origin of the mode of anastomosis of the larger ves-
sels, enlarged 52 times.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXI.

Fig. 14. — Embryo silver gar, 116 hours and 40 minutes after impregnation, showing
the further development of the heart and blood-vessels traversing the surface of the
yelk. Those on the opposite side of the yelk are indicated by the dotted lines. Pig-
ment cells have made their appearance on the body beneath the superficial epiblast
and on the yelk and the heart. The intestine and urinary vesicle b are well devel-
oped, as seen in the tail end of the embryo on the opposite of the egg through the
vitellus.

Fig. 15. — Sketch of heart and vessels which, empty into it in an embryo 140 hours
old; the formation of the blood is in active progress where the vessels converge to
join the heart, which is now blotched with pigment cells of two colors in life. En-
larged 2(3 times.

Fig 16. — Embryo silver gar, viewed from the side as a transparent object 165^ hours
after impregnation, to show the progress of development of the blood vessels over the
yelk on the right side. The heart or pericardiac cavity j) is now enormously devel-
oped, and the development of blood cells is going on with great activity in its lower
part, where the venons end a of the heart is attached. The heart itself is now greatly
elongated downwardly, and is one-third as long as the whole embryo.

ON THE REARIIV« OF IV'HITEFI.SII IN SPRING-WATER AND ITS
REI^ATION TO THEIR wrRSEQUENT HBSTRIRrTION.

By FRANK N. CLARK.

[Letter to Prof. S. F. Baird.]

I am not preiDared to say whether or not eggs of the whitefish are
prematurely hatched in spring-water. I take it that the question is a
scientilic problem for scientists to solve; that it is a point on which
even " doctors disagree."

If we could "reaj) what we sow" from our plants of fish in bodiesof water
like the great lakes we would soon have a practical test of the respective
value of "premature" or "retarded "development of eggs or embryos; but
this is impossible, and so if there is any difference we must detect it
from evidence that is circumstantial or theoretical. It seems reasonable
to assume that if the little fellows are vigorous when hatched, whether
of three or five months' incubation, and are released when and where
aliment for their sustenance is abundant, a large percentage of those
not destroyed by predaceous fishes ought to become adults. There is
no difference in size and activity between fish brought out in three or
six months, where the same water is used ; neither are there points
about the former that can be construed into evidence of abnormal de-

302 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

velopment or " i>rematurity." We have had a good chance to test this
here, where the spriug-water is raised or lovyered in teiiiperatiire, accord-
ing to the weather, before it reaches the hatchery. Our hatching sea-
sons are long or short, according as the winter is severe or moderate.
Last year our eggs were laid in fully two weeks earlier and hatched
nearly a month later than this, yet the fish of this year are equal in vigor
and identical in appearance with those i^roduced last season. But there
is a very slight difference between the fry of the Northville hatchery,
and of the Detroit, Toledo, and Sandusky hatcheries ; the latter are a
little darker, a trifle less transparent. I used to think that this differ-
ence was due to diff'erence of hatchiugijeriods ; but since the fry of this
season that hatched earlier than ever before are identical with previous
hatchings, and since there is always the same difference between the
spring- water and lake-water fry, no matter whether the former are has-
tened or retarded, I am constrained to think that the difference, which,
however, is almost imperceptible, is due to the charactir rather than
the temperature of the water. Last year our tish were "kept back"
nearly as late as were those in hatcheries using lake-water. I know
that when we made a plant at the islands (Lake Erie) the tanks of the
Sandusky hatchery were full of whiteflsh minnows ready for distribu-
tion; and although there was not to exceed ten days in difference in
times of hatching, there was that same slight difference in color and
transparency.

Our spring-water is clear and sparkling, free from mechanical impuri-
ties, but holding in solution sufficient calcic salts to make it quite hard.
The water used at the Sandusky and Toledo hatcheries is much softer,
but is quite roily at tiaies, and is never free from mechanical impurities.
When they were laying in eggs last fall the water was so bad that they
had to dispense with the wire gates through which the water discharges
from the jar, as they would get clogged with sediment in a short time
and overflow the jar.

We have, at the hatchery here, brought forth the young of brook trout
in 80 days, and anon in 120 days; yet the former ate as readily, grew
as rapidly, suffered as little loss, and in fact were the equals in every
respect of the latter. The hatchery of the Michigan commission, for-
merly located at Pokagou, used spring-water for hatching their trout
eggs, without attem])tiug to cool it by extended exposure to the air. In
consequence of using this comparatively warm water their eggs frequent-
ly hatched in mid-winter — 1 presume in less than 80 days, but do not
not know positively. 'They had no trouble in rearing their fish.

I am well satisfied that where we have had a chance to test this matter,
as with the young of fishes readily ad;ii)ted to being grown in confinement
in ponds or tanks, or "artificially" as brook trout, California trout, &c.,
it makes no difference whatever, either as to the appearance of the fish,
or results in rearing, whether the eggs incubate a moderately short or
a very long time. There must, of course, be a limit to the brevity of the

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 303

hatcliiuii-period, but where the line is to be drawn is more than I can.
say. We have no such chance for making such tests with the young of
whitefish, as they are, of course, lost sight of when released in such vast
bodies of water as the great lakes, and we can therefore only speculate
as to their probable future. But if varying periods of incubation make
no ditterence in the vigor or appearance of trout alevins, why should it
with wliitellsh I Do not the facts in connection with trout establish a pre-
cedent, or basis, for calculations in regard to the number of adults to be
produced from a given number of any kind of fish set free in waters to
which they are indigenous, provided the latter are, like the former,
protected from enemies, and have an abundance of their appropriate
aliment at command ? Is there anything wanting to make the in^emises
and conclusions analogous? It is not possible to i)rotect the little fishes
from their enemies, when they are turned loose to " seek their own salva-
tion.'' But it s/<o«Z^ be incumbent on the flsh-culturist to see to it that
they are released only when and where their particular food is found; and
not only found, but in sufiicient quantities for the purpose, so that we
might reasonably expect as large percentages to survive, outside of those
destroyed by enemies, as we do of those grown in our ponds.

It is one thing to hatch a large number of fish ; it is quite another to
know just when and where to place them within the jurisdiction of con-
ditions absolutely essential to their existence. The former is now a matter
of comparative ease; but as this amounts to nothing, so far as the results
sought after are concerned, if the proper conditions are not subsequently
supplied, there ought to be a certainty, which scientific investigation
alone must determine, that these conditions do exist. The tendency with
lish-culturists generally has been to see how many fishes can be brought
into existence, and to see how cheaply it can be done, then planting them
with a reckless indifference, trusting to "luck" for good results.

Perhaps, though, this random and indiscriminate distribution is the
best that can be done in many instances where the exact requirements
are not known.

Professor Forbes' recent researches to determine the food of the young
of whitefish throw a good deal of light on this subject, that will apiily
with equal force, in some respects, to other fishes ; and his prospective
experiments will doubtless reveal still greater light, if indeed they do
not, incidentally, settle the question of prematurity so far as the young
of whitefish are concerned. What he proposes to do, as I understood
him in a recent conversation on our way from Eacine to Chicago, is to set
two or more seines or jiriSons in Geneva Lake, Wisconsin, where the
alleged food of the young Avhitefishes, entomostraca, &c., is found.

Into these separately will be put some fry from the Korthville hatch-
ery— if I can keep them alive until he is ready for them — and some
from the Detroit hatchery, later on. If the little fellows partake of the
entomostraca freely and thrive, this will verify Mr. Forbes' prior conclu-
sions that this is their earliest food. If the Detroit fish live and mine
do not, it will look as though mine were premature, unless indeed they

304 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

shall have been kept too long before the test is made. If the Detroit
fish suffer as great loss as mine, it will look as though there was no ad-
vantage or nothing to be gained by retarding the eggs, so far as the
vigor of the fish is concerned. If Mr. Forbes finds that the entomostraca
are much more abundant later on than when he made investigations at
Racine the day following our plant of fish at that point, it will signify
that we should keep back the eggs, so that the fry may have the greatest
Ijossible amount of food at their disposal. Or, if Mr. Forbes' experiments
show, or, if it can be shown, that our spring- water brings out weak or
immature fish, then certainly other water should be used, even though
the whitefish branch of the work is removed to some other locality, which
I shall be perfectly willing to have done.

We have other water near the hatchery (branch of river Eouge, see
map), that is as cold as can be found anywhere during the winter; but
it is lower than the hatchery, and would have to be pumped. This would
entail some expense, but would give us more water for trout i)uri3oses.
We could also, by running varying proportions of si)ring and creek water
on different sections of eggs (whitefish), hatch them at will, as wanted
for distribution.

Another good way, too, if it is thought best not to hatch whitefish at
Northville in the spring- water, is to put up an inexpensive hatchery
adjacent to some good si>awning grounds, as, for instance, at Alpena.
At such a point, the hatchery could be filled at a very moderate expense,
as every fisherman would lend a hearty co-operation. By using jars
only and having no shipments to make, two men could easily care for a
very large number of eggs. Enough could be sent on to Northville, say
five or ten million, to fill orders from other i^oints, making this head-
quarters for shipping, correspondence, &c.

Our whitefish hatched in from 75 to 90 days this year — an unusually
brief period ; but since they are the exact counterparts, both in appear-
ance and vigor, of the fish of previous hatchings, I am forced to admit
that the opinions I have hitherto held in regard to this matter were
erroneous. But I think there is a very good reason why the use of spring-
water for hatching these fish should be discontiiuied, unless, indeed, we
can devise some means of reducing it to the proper temperature to "keep
the fish back" later than this; for, although the "premature" fish are
perfectly normal, it is altogether probable that the proper food exists
in much greater abundance later on.

I can but think, too, as Professor Forbes says, substantially, that a
great mistake is made in planting the fish in such large numbers in one
jdace. The water should be teeming with the aj^propriate food at the
time and jdace the fish are set free, to meet the requirements of so vast
a number of minnows as are usually released in one place.

According to Professor Forbes' recent investigations off" Racine, each
minnow would have to skirmish around throTigh a vast deal of water to
find suificient nourishment, even though he had no comrades with which
to divide the spoils. Grown fish might easily migrate to rich feeding-

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 305

grounds; but this can hardly be expected of those of such tender af>e.
I think they should be as widely scattered as possible when turned loose.
Doubtless more of them would .yet eaten up, but less would starve to
death. This should apply to other kinds of fish as well. It might be
argued that the parent fish themselves congregate in large numbers in
one locality to deposit their eggs. This is true, but it is very doubtful if
any hatch except those isolated individuals carried into the crevice of
some rock or reef, thus becoming protected from spawn-eaters and the
confervaceous growth that must generate and destroy all eggs en masse ;
so that but a comparatively small number of the young are turned out,
and these are considerably scattered.

Touching on these points, I will quote from Professor Forbes' recent
letters :

From February 3: "I have not forgotten the food of the young white-
fish, but have kept the subject in mind in making collections from Lake
Michigan and adjacent waters this fall and winter. Entomostraca of
great variety occur in considerable numbers in the lake at all seasons,
as is shown by surface collections made there hy me in October and
November, oft' Chicago, and in Grand Traverse Bay, and by the strain-
ing of the water supply of Chicago. A fine lot of the common forms
was obtained by the latter method, January 20, of this year. Everything
of the sort is much more abundant, however, about the time of the mel-
ting of the snow than at any earlier period, and the chances of young
fish finding sufficient food would certainly be much better then than
earlier. " * * *

Mr. Forbes had arranged to be with us on our trip with fish to Eacine
and Sheboygan, but missing our train, came on to Racine the day fol-
lowing our plant of fish. He then made his searches for entomostraca,